We use a CONTINUUM to analyse a MOVEMENT SKILL These are imaginary scales of 2 extremes that show a gradual increasedecrease in the number of characteristics We classify movements ID: 566921
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Slide1
CLASSIFICATION OF SKILLS
We
use a
CONTINUUM
to analyse a
MOVEMENT SKILL
.
These
are imaginary scales of 2
extremes
, that show a gradual increase/decrease in the number of characteristics.
We classify movements
skills because:
- difficult to be specific as skills have elements of all characteristics.
- characteristics can change depending on the situation in which they are performed.
There
are
6
Continuum
1
)
MUSCULAR INVOLVEMENT
: From
GROSS
skills (large muscle movements) to
FINE
. Skills (involve small muscle movements)
2)
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCER
: From
OPEN
skills (affected by the environment) to
CLOSED
skills (not affected by the environment)
3)
CONTINUITY CONTINUUM
: From
DISCRETE
skills (a clear beginning and end) through
SERIAL
skills (numerous discrete skills put together) to
CONTINUOUS
skills (skills with no beginning or end)
4)
PACING CONTINUUM:
From
SELF PACED
skills (the performer determines when to start the skill) to
EXTERNALLY PACED
skills (the control of the movement is determined by the environment)
5)
DIFFICULTY CONTINUUM:
From
SIMPLE
skills (low levels of decision making, sub routines, power and accuracy needed, use of feedback, low perceptual load) to
COMPLEX
skills (high levels of the previous)
6)
ORGANISATIONAL CONTINUUM
: From
LOW
(sub routines are easily separated) to
HIGH
(sub routines are closely linked)Slide2
GROSS MOTOR ABILITY and PSYCHOMOTOR ABILITY
SKILL
has
GOALS
, is
LEARNED
and is
TECHNICAL
and it relies on ability
ABILITY
is
INNATE
is
GENETICALLY DETERMINED,
is
STABLE
and lasts a long time. They
SUPPORT
and
UNDERLIE
skills. They are
BUILDING
BLOCKS
which help us to perform skills. As they are determined by genes, whichever ones you have will depend on how successful that you are in sport
FLEISHMAN
identified 2 types of Ability.
1)
GROSS MOTOR ABILITY
(9) – These are Physical Proficiency abilities. There are 9 related to physical fitness: Dynamic Strength, Static Strength, Explosive Strength, Trunk Strength, Stamina, Extent Flexibility, Dynamic Flexibility, Gross Body Coordination, Gross Body Equilibrium
2)
PSYCHOMOTOR ABILITY
(8)– involves processing information and putting them into action. These include: Multi Limb Coordination, Response Orientation, Reaction Time, Speed of Movement, Finger Dexterity, Manual Dexterity, Rate Control, Aiming
Skills rely on several abilities to support or underpin them.
NATURAL GAMES PLAYERS
– some coaches suggest that some athletes are this. Current research states that this is not the case. Some sports require the similar abilities and the athlete simply
TRANSFERS
them
Ability can be developed particularly well in childhood if they have opportunity to
PRACTICE
, access to
FACILITIES
and
EXPERT COACHINGSlide3
There are 3 Stages or Phases of Learning.
COGNITIVE STAGE:
The learner attempts to create a
MENTAL PICTURE
of how the skill should be performed.
VERBAL EXPLANATIONS
and
DEMONSTRATIONS
are important. It will take longer if the skill is
COMPLEX.
Learners are given specific
CUES
to focus on, of the most important parts of the skill. This is called
SELECTIVE ATTENTION.
Learners use
TRIAL AND ERROR
.
POSITIVE FEEDBACK
is important for
REINFORCEMENT.
Performances will be
INCONSISTENT,
full of
ERRORS
.
ASSOCIATIVE STAGE:
This is the
PRACTICE
phase of learning. Some learners stay in this stage for a long time and never progress beyond it. Mistakes begin to be eliminated and errors are less gross. Learners are more
CONSISTENT
, and the
FUNDAMENTALS
are mastered.
SUB ROUTINES
are coordinated and the skill is
SMOOTHER
. The learner attends to
SPECIFIC CUES
and they concentrate on
REFINING
skills in many conditions. The learner develops their use of
KINAESTHESIS
to eliminate errors.
AUTONOMOUS STAGE:
The skill can be executed with
MINIMUM CONSCIOUS THOUGHT.
They can concentrate on other factors such as tactics. The
MOTOR PROGRAMME
is established and stored in the
LONG TERM MEMORY
. Performance is
CONSISTENT
and
HABITUAL.
Performers can detect their
OWN ERRORS
.
EXTERNAL FEEDBACK
is less important. Slide4
There are 4 Types of GUIDANCE used by coaches to help the learning process
VISUAL GUIDANCE:
This is used at all stages of learning. It is important because
VISION
is the dominant sense. We tend to learn through
IMITATION. DEMONSTRATIONS
are good for this but they must be ACCURATE. They can also include pictures, diagrams and video. A
MENTAL PICTURE
can be developed but there are disadvantages with complex skills because there is so much information. Some methods may not keep attention
VERBAL GUIDANCE:
Often used with Visual to direct the learner to
SPECIFIC CUES.
It must be
CLEAR AND CONSCISE
to be understood and remembered. Useful when working with
AUTONOMOUS
learners. Disadvantages are that ability of the coach to relay the message, information must to be limited and some complex skills are difficult to describe.
MANUAL GUIDANCE:
This is when the coach
HOLDS
or
PHYSICALLY MANIPULATES
the body of the learner throughout the correct movement.
MECHANICAL GUIDANCE:
This is the use of an
EQUIPMENT
to help the learner. Arm bands are an example. This allows the learner to develop
SPATIAL AWARENESS
and TIMING. Both Manual and Mechanical are good in the Cognitive stage and develop
KINAESTHESIS.
They give
CONFIDENCE
but it must not be relied upon. Good for dangerous skills. However the equipment might not
REPLICATE
the actual movement. Slide5
THE 4 METHODS OF MANIPULATING PRACTICE
TASK ANALYSIS
uses the skills classification system to understand how a skill needs to be taught. You use the
ORGANISATIONAL
and
DIFFICULTY
continua .....
ORGANISATIONAL
- Can the skill be broken down into parts or not?
DIFFICULTY
– How many decisions have to be made to perform the skill?
KINAESTHESIS
is the awareness of your body in the movement space
1)
PART PRACTICE
: used when the skill is
LOW ORGANISATION
and can be broken into
SUB ROUTINES
. These are then practiced in
ISOLATION
before putting them all together. EG: Tennis Serve
2)
WHOLE PRACTICE
: Skills taught as a whole. Usually when
HIGH ORGANISATION
and
LOW COMPLEXITY
. EG: Golf Swing. It allows performers to gain
KINAESTHESIS
3)
PROGRESSIVE – PART PRACTICE
: Complex skills are practiced in isolation, then linked together to form large parts before combining into the whole skill. EG: The Triple Jump / Trampoline Routines
4)
WHOLE - PART - WHOLE METHOD
: The learner tries the whole skill first, gets a feel for it, then break it into
SUB ROUTINES
to practice in isolation, then put back together again. EG: The Tennis ServeSlide6
We can
CLASSIFY SKILLS
on
CONTINUUM
. These are imaginary scales of 2 extremes. EG: Black White.
PERCEPTUAL LOAD is the degree of decision making. If high lots of decisions made . SUB ROUTINES are the different parts of a skill1) MUSCULAR INVOLVEMENT: From GROSS skills (large muscle movements) to FINE. Skills (involve small muscle movements)2) ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCER: From OPEN skills (affected by the environment) to CLOSED skills (not affected by the environment)3) CONTINUITY CONTINUUM: From DISCRETE skills (a clear beginning and end) through SERIAL skills (numerous discrete skills put together) to CONTINUOUS skills (skills with no beginning or end) 4) PACING CONTINUUM: From SELF PACED skills (the performer determines when to start the skill) to EXTERNALLY PACED skills (the control of the movement is determined by the environment)5) DIFFICULTY CONTINUUM: From SIMPLE skills (low levels of decision making, sub routines, power and accuracy needed, use of feedback, low perceptual load) to COMPLEX skills (high levels of the previous)6) ORGANISATIONAL CONTINUUM: From LOW (sub routines are easily separated) to HIGH (sub routines are closely linked)Slide7
SKILL
has
GOALS
, is
LEARNED
and is TECHNICAL and it relies on abilityABILITY is INNATE is GENETICALLY DETERMINED, is STABLE and lasts a long time. They SUPPORT and UNDERLIE skills. They are BUILDING BLOCKS which help us to perform skills. As they are determined by genes, whichever ones you have will depend on how successful that you are in sportFLEISHMAN identified 2 types of Ability. 1) GROSS MOTOR ABILITY (9) – These are Physical Proficiency abilities. There are 9 related to physical fitness: Dynamic Strength, Static Strength, Explosive Strength, Trunk Strength, Stamina, Extent Flexibility, Dynamic Flexibility, Gross Body Coordination, Gross Body Equilibrium 2) PSYCHOMOTOR ABILITY (8)– involves processing information and putting them into action. These include: Multi Limb Coordination, Response Orientation, Reaction Time, Speed of Movement, Finger Dexterity, Manual Dexterity, Rate Control, AimingSkills rely on several abilities to support or underpin them. NATURAL GAMES PLAYERS – some coaches suggest that some athletes are this. Current research states that this is not the case. Some sports require the similar abilities and the athlete simply TRANSFERS themAbility can be developed particularly well in childhood if they have opportunity to PRACTICE, access to FACILITIES and EXPERT COACHINGSlide8
THE 4 METHODS OF MANIPULATING PRACTICE
TASK ANALYSIS
uses the skills classification system to understand how a skill needs to be taught. You use the
ORGANISATIONAL
and
DIFFICULTY continua .....ORGANISATIONAL - Can the skill be broken down into parts or not?DIFFICULTY – How many decisions have to be made to perform the skill?KINAESTHESIS is the awareness of your body in the movement space 1) PART PRACTICE: used when the skill is LOW ORGANISATION and can be broken into SUB ROUTINES. These are then practiced in ISOLATION before putting them all together. EG: Tennis Serve 2) WHOLE PRACTICE: Skills taught as a whole. Usually when HIGH ORGANISATION and LOW COMPLEXITY. EG: Golf Swing. It allows performers to gain KINAESTHESIS 3) PROGRESSIVE – PART PRACTICE: Complex skills are practiced in isolation, then linked together to form large parts before combining into the whole skill. EG: The Triple Jump / Trampoline Routines 4) WHOLE - PART - WHOLE METHOD: The learner tries the whole skill first, gets a feel for it, then break it into SUB ROUTINES to practice in isolation, then put back together again. EG: The Tennis ServeSlide9
PART PRACTICE:
Advantages: Reduces the amount of Information you need to learn / Good for learning Dangerous Skills / Good for gaining confidence bit by bit / Good for serial skills
Disadvantages: Takes time / Putting parts together can be difficult
WHOLE PRACTICE
Advantages: Allows athlete to FEEL the movement and appreciate relationship of body parts / Good for Ballistic skills / Quick to learn
Disadvantages: Not suitable for complex or dangerous skillsPROGRESSIVE – PART PRACTICE Advantages: Good for complex Serial Skills as it reduces information load and can help the transfer into the whole skill – called CHAINING Disadvantages:WHOLE - PART - WHOLE METHOD Advantages: The learner gets a KINAESTHETIC feel for the skill first / Can be quicker to learn / can identify weak parts of the skill earlier Disadvantages: Not suitable for Highly Organised SkillsSlide10
There are 3 STAGES or PHASES OF LEARNING
COGNITIVE STAGE:
The learner attempts to create a
MENTAL PICTURE
of how the skill should be performed.
VERBAL EXPLANATIONS and DEMONSTRATIONS are important. It will take longer if the skill is COMPLEX. Learners are given specific CUES to focus on, of the most important parts of the skill. This is called SELECTIVE ATTENTION. Learners use TRIAL AND ERROR. POSITIVE FEEDBACK is important for REINFORCEMENT. Performances will be INCONSISTENT, full of ERRORS.ASSOCIATIVE STAGE: This is the PRACTICE phase of learning. Some learners stay in this stage for a long time and never progress beyond it. Mistakes begin to be eliminated and errors are less gross. Learners are more CONSISTENT, and the FUNDAMENTALS are mastered. SUB ROUTINES are coordinated and the skill is SMOOTHER. The learner attends to SPECIFIC CUES and they concentrate on REFINING skills in many conditions. The learner develops their use of KINAESTHESIS to eliminate errors. AUTONOMOUS STAGE: The skill can be executed with MINIMUM CONSCIOUS THOUGHT. They can concentrate on other factors such as tactics. The MOTOR PROGRAMME is established and stored in the LONG TERM MEMORY
. Performance is
CONSISTENT
and
HABITUAL.
Performers can detect their
OWN ERRORS
.
EXTERNAL FEEDBACK
is less important. Slide11
4 TYPES OF GUIDANCE
VISUAL GUIDANCE:
This is used at all stages of learning. It is important because
VISION
is the dominant sense. We tend to learn through
IMITATION. DEMONSTRATIONS are good for this but they must be ACCURATE. They can also include pictures, diagrams and video. A MENTAL PICTURE can be developed but there are disadvantages with complex skills because there is so much information. Some methods may not keep attentionVERBAL GUIDANCE: Often used with Visual to direct the learner to SPECIFIC CUES. It must be CLEAR AND CONSCISE to be understood and remembered. Useful when working with AUTONOMOUS learners. Disadvantages are that ability of the coach to relay the message, information must to be limited and some complex skills are difficult to describe. MANUAL GUIDANCE: This is when the coach HOLDS or PHYSICALLY MANIPULATES the body of the learner throughout the correct movement. MECHANICAL GUIDANCE: This is the use of an EQUIPMENT to help the learner. Arm bands are an example. This allows the learner to develop SPATIAL AWARENESS and TIMING. Both Manual and Mechanical are good in the Cognitive stage and develop KINAESTHESIS. They give CONFIDENCE but it must not be relied upon. Good for dangerous skills. However the equipment might not REPLICATE the actual movement. Slide12
PRACTICE METHODS
MASSED PRACTICE
is when the learner practices
CONTINUOUSLY
with
NO REST. Sessions are usually LONG. It is good for GROOVING SKILLS and making them HABITUAL. It is good for ELITE, EXPERIENCED athletes with good FITNESS. They are good for SIMPLE and DISCRETE skills. Disadvantages are that it can cause BOREDOM and FATIGUEDISTRIBUTED PRACTICE does have REST. It is good for BEGINNERS and learners with LOW MOTIVATION and FITNESS. It is good for CONTINUOUS and COMPLEX skills. Rest uses EXTRINSIC FEEDBACK and MENTAL REHEARSAL. The MOST EFFECTIVE method and promotes MOTIVATIONFIXED PRACTICE is when a specific movement pattern is practiced repeatedly in the same ENVIRONMENT. It is also called a SKILL DRILL. It is good for CLOSED skills and allows them to be
OVERLEARNED
so attention can be directed to the environment.
VARIED PRACTICE
is when the skill is practiced in many environments. It allows
SCHEMA
to develop so the performer can
ADAPT
to the environment. Practice must be
REALISTIC
. It develops
PERCEPTION
and
DECISION MAKING
. It is good for
OPEN
skills. A skill needs to be
OVERLEARNED
before using this as they need to adapt to the environment
MENTAL REHEARSAL
or
IMAGERY
is when the athlete goes through the skill in the mind. Good for
COGNITIVE
learners but the elite use to
FOCUSSlide13
INFORMATION PROCESSING MODELS compare our brains to computers and how information enters our system, how we interpret it and how we put these decisions into action. There are 3 key processes :
1)
INPUTTING
information through
SENSORY INPUT
(touch, sight etc) 2) PROCESSING information through our CENTRAL MECHANISM (brains) 3) OUTPUTTING information through EFFECTOR MECHANISMS (muscles) STIMULUS IDENTIFICATION is when our senses receive information about the situation. A stimulus is any information which stands out. This stage involves PERCEPTION. EG: The speed and direction of the shotRESPONSE SELECTION is when we decide what movement to make EG: The ball is high and left so I must dive in that direction to save itRESPONSE PROGRAMMING organises our MOTOR system (nerves and muscles) to carry out the movement. EG: You dive in that directionThere are 2 Models of Information Processing that we will apply to SportWHELFORD’S MODELWHITING’S MODELSlide14
Use the handouts and the following terminology to APPLY both models
PROPRIOCEPTION
is a sense that allows us to know what position our body is in. It relies on information from
PROPRIOCEPTORS
in our joints
PERCEPTION is how we view or interpret the informationPERCEPTUAL MECHANISM is the use of detecting, comparing and recognising informationMEMORY has 3 parts. 1) SHORT TERM SENSORY STORE 2) SHORT TERM MEMORY 3) LONG TERM MEMORYMOTOR PROGRAMME is a series of movements stored in the long term memory. It remembers the sequence they are performed inDISPLAY is the surrounding environmentKINAESTHESIS is the feel of the movement. Used by advanced athletesTRANSLATORY MECHANISMS is the decision making aspect once the information has been interpretedEFFECTOR MECHANISM is when the motor programme is put into action by sending nerve IMPULSES to the musclesEFFECTOR is the muscles which put the movement into actionFEEDBACK can be INTRINSIC (from internal proprioceptors) or EXTRINSIC (coach, team mates) Slide15
SERIAL AND PARALLEL PROCESSING
Most information that we process is done
SEQUENTIALLY
or in
STAGES
. Each stage is different and they have an effect on each other. These are known as SERIAL PROCESSES. EG: In a trampoline routine the performer processes information relating to each movement and stage by stage. PARALLEL PROCESSING is when processes occur SIMULTANEOUSLY. They do not have an effect on each other. EG: In a game you process information about the speed, direction and height of the ball but also the team mates and opposition. Use Whiting’s and Whelford’s Model to explain:A skill which requires SERIAL PROCESSES and A Skill which uses PARALLEL PROCESSINGSlide16
MEMORY is important for
INTERPRETING
information and deciding the
MOTOR PROGRAMME
to use. We rely on our
PREVIOUS EXPERIENCES. The MULTI STORE MODEL OF INFORMATION PROCESSING identifies 3 STORES. SENSORY MEMORY (SM) The use of SHORT TERM SENSORY STORES holds all stimuli for only 0.25 second to 1 second. Their capacity is LARGE and there is a separate store for each sense. Our PERCEPTION recognises which is the most important information. It is FILTERED through SELECTIVE ATTENTION. Only the important info is used. Focusing on irrelevant information is ATTENTIONAL WASTAGESHORT TERM MEMORY(STM) This is the WORKPLACE where incoming information is COMPARED to what you have already stored in the LTM. It has LIMITED CAPACITY in terms of QUANTITY (5 to 9 pieces of info) and LENGTH of time stored (up to 30 seconds) ENCODING is information in coded form. To do this the info must be passed into the LTM through REHEARSAL. LONG TERM MEMORY(LTM) holds the info that has been REHEARSED. Its capacity is LIMITLESS and can be held PERMANENTLY. Motor Programmes are stored in the LTMSlide17
Use the Multi Store Model to explain how we use information and transfer it from on stage to another
..
Use Practical Examples
Draw the model and apply
your answers SHORT TERM SENSORY STORESHORT TERM MEMORYLONG TERM MEMORYSTIMULI / INPUTSELECTIVEATTENTIONENCODING
ENCODING
RETRIEVAL
PERCEPTION
AND DECISION
MAKINGSlide18
REACTION TIME
is the time between the onset of the stimulus and the start of the movement in response to it. It has 4 parts and is the time for:
The stimulus to activate the particular sensory system
The stimulus to travel from the sensory system to the brain
The brain
(CENTRAL MECHANISM) to process the stimulusThe relevant commands to be sent from the central mechanism to the musclesMOVEMENT TIME is the time taken from starting the movement to finishing itRESPONSE TIME is the time taken from the onset of the stimulus to the completion of the movement = REACTION TIME + MOVEMENT TIME Imagine you are Usain Bolt’s Psychologist. You want to explain REACTION TIME for the benefit of him and for his coach. Write an article which explains Reaction Time for their benefit. Ensure you apply of the key concepts and use practical examples to make it easy to understandSlide19
Reaction Time is affected by many factors.
AGE – reaction time gets quicker until you are 20, then declines
GENDER – males generally have quicker reaction times
LIMB USED – the further the nerve impulse has to travel the slower the reaction time will be. Feet Reaction will be slower than hands
PERSONALITY – Extroverts have quicker reaction time than INTROVERTS
ALERTNESS: Optimum levels are needed to react quickestBODY TEMP – if we are cold, we react slowerSENSES: Different senses have different reaction times in the following order: PAIN / SIGHT / SOUND / TOUCH / KINAESTHESIAIF A WARNING IS GIVEN and you are expecting it you will react quickerSTIMULUS INTENSITY: loud sounds or sights stimulate quick reactionsTHE LIKELIHOOD OF THE STIMULUS OCCURRING: If it has a good chance of occurring reactions are quicker. This is STIMULUS – RESPONSE COMPATABILITY. EG: A punch being thrown in Boxing Use practical examples to highlight how Reaction times in the England Rugby and Football Teams will compare.Slide20
REACTION TIME
SINGLE CHANNEL HYPOTHESIS
states that when we receive information the brain can only deal with one stimulus at a time. It is thought of as a
SINGLE CHANNEL
. One piece has to be processed before the next one can be dealt with. This is called a
BOTTLENECKCHOICE REACTION TIME is when performers are having to deal with more than one stimulus and one response at a time. The greater the amount of choices will increase the information to be processed and slow reaction timeHICK’s LAW states that CHOICE REACTION TIME increases as the number of stimulus / alternatives increases. This relationship is LINEAR. Coaches can Improve a Performers Response Time by: PRACTICE and REHEARSAL / MENTAL REHEARSAL / EXPERIENCE / STIMULUS RESPONSE COMPATABILITY / CUE DETECTION EG: recognising an opponents body position / PHYSICAL FITNESS/ LEVEL OF MOTIVATION / WARM UP/ SPATIAL ANTICIPATION is predicting what will happen/ TEMPORAL ANTICIPATION is predicting when it will happen. Slide21
ANTICIPATION
has many benefits BUT we must be aware of its draw backs. If we anticipate incorrectly our reaction time will slow down. If we detect a stimulus and are processing it but are then presented with a second stimulus, we are unable to deal with the second stimulus until we have finished dealing with the first
EG: A defender in football when dealing with
Christiano
Ronaldo. If Ronaldo performs a step over (1st STIMULUS) the defender attempts to deal with this (1st RESPONSE) by moving his body in that direction. However, Ronaldo then moves the ball in the opposite direction (2nd STIMULUS). The defender cannot deal with the 2nd STIMULUS and perform a 2nd RESPONSE until he has completed the 1st RESPONSE. This delay in attending to the 2nd STIMULUS is called THE PSYCHOLOGICAL REFRACTORY PERIOD (PRP). It is the delay caused by only being able to process one piece of information at a timeSTIMULUS 1REACTION 1
STIMULUS 2
REACTION 2
PRP (TIME)Slide22
A MOTOR PROGRAMME (MP) is a GENERALISED series or pattern of movements stored in the LONG TERM MEMORY. It is the PLAN for a skill. It can also be called an EXECUTIVE MOTOR PROGRAMME (EMP). Every skill in sport has a MP or EMP
An MP for a Tennis Serve would include the following sub routines: Ball Toss, Backswing, Forward Swing, Contact, and Follow Through. These SUB ROUTINES are HIERARCHICAL (they have an order of importance) and SEQUENTIAL (they are performed in an order)Slide23
When a performer reaches the
AUTONOMOUS STAGE
they will have
OVERLEARNED
or
GROOVED the Motor Programme into the LTMMotor Programmes can be one of 3 Types or LEVELS depending on the amount of feedback available when performing the skill LEVEL 1 CONTROL: OPEN LOOP CONTROL: When RAPID movements are performed. It is a very QUICK action with NO TIME for FEEDBACK. Therefore the movement CANNOT BE CHANGED. The EMP is stored in the LTM and sent to the MOVEMENT EFFECTORS because there is a MEMORY TRACE as it has been so well REHEARSED. Control is SUBCONSCIOUS. It is associated with BALLISTIC skills such as wicket keeping in cricket LEVEL 2 CONTROL: CLOSED LOOP CONTROL: This control involves FEEDBACK and this is called PERCEPTUAL TRACE. FEEDBACK is SHORT and is gathered by KINAESTHESIS and PROPRIOCEPTORS. Quick subconscious CORRECTIONS can take place. EG: Slalom Skiing LEVEL 3 CONTROL: CLOSED LOOP CONTROL
:
FEEDBACK
about the performance has
TIME
to get to the brain. You can change the movement by sending
IMPULSES
back to the muscles. It uses
CONSCIOUS
thought.
EXTERNAL FEEDBACK
can be used to
REINFORCE
especially if they are beginners. The
PERCEPTUAL TRACE
compares the performance with the
MEMORY TRACE
. If it matches its reinforced, if not the skill is adjustedSlide24
Draw Adam’s 3 theories of Loop Control and explain how they apply in sport. Apply all characteristics of each level and explain how they work
Do you believe in Loop Control Theory? What are the drawbacks? Think about: Open Skills. Will this work for Open Skills?
Why?
THE EMP in the LTM
The Action of the MusclesMemory TraceLEVEL ONE CONTROLLEVEL TWO CONTROLTHE EMP in the LTMThe Action of the Muscles
Feedback
Via Muscles
Memory
Trace
LEVEL THREE CONTROL
THE EMP in the LTM
The Action of the Muscles
Memory
Trace
Perceptual
TraceSlide25
SCHEMA THEORY
This theory disagrees with Loop Control and states that
MPs
are not stored in the LTM as separate items but they are held as
RELATIONSHIPS
which are GENERALISED MOVEMENTS which can be ADAPTED to respond to NEW SITUATIONS. Schema is a store of information and experiencesThe EXPERIENCE is gathered from 4 areas called MEMORY ITEMS. Items 1 and 2 make up RECALL SCHEMA and items 3 and 4 make up RECOGNITION SCHEMA. Both allow the performer to ADAPTRECALL SCHEMA MEMORY ITEM 1: KNOWLEDGE OF INITIAL CONDITIONS: Has the athlete experienced a similar situation before ? MEMORY ITEM 2: KNOWLEDGE OF RESPONSE SPECIFICATIONS: Does the athlete know what can be done in these situations?RECOGNITION SCHEMA MEMORY ITEM 3: KNOWLEDGE OF SENSORY CONSEQUENCES: Relates to Kinaesthesis. Does the athlete know how it feels to perform the correct skill MEMORY ITEM 4: KNOWLEDGE OF MOVEMENT OUTCOME: Does the athlete know what the outcome of performing the skill will be?Slide26
Sporting Scenario: 2 attackers v 1 defender in Rugby
RECALL SCHEMA
MEMORY ITEM 1:
KNOWLEDGE OF INITIAL CONDITIONS:
Has he experienced a 2 v 1 situation before?
MEMORY ITEM 2: KNOWLEDGE OF RESPONSE SPECIFICATIONS: Does the performer know that he can pass, dummy, sidestep or kick?RECOGNITION SCHEMA MEMORY ITEM 3: KNOWLEDGE OF SENSORY CONSEQUENCES: Does the performer know what it feels like to successfully execute a pass etc ? MEMORY ITEM 4: KNOWLEDGE OF MOVEMENT OUTCOME: Does the athlete know that if he did side step then the defender would be sent the wrong way? ......The performer then executes the skill based on these experiences Apply Schema Theory to a sporting situation of your choice. Which do you believe in? Loop Control or Schema?Slide27
FEEDBACK
FEEDBACK
is information received by the athlete both during and after the skill has been performed. It must be
ACCURATE, CONSTRUCTIVE
and
COMPREHESIBLE and it can improve CONFIDENCE, MOTIVATION, REDUCE ERRORS, and REINFORCE good actions. There are 8 Types: POSITIVE : given externally by a coach when PRAISING their successNEGATIVE: is given when the movement is INCORRECT. It can be INTRINSIC or EXTRINSIC. This is NOT criticismEXTRINSIC: is from external sources such as the coach. Can be called AUGMENTED feedbackINTRINSIC: is SENSORY feedback about the physical feel of the movement. It relies on PROPRIOCEPTORS and KINAESTHESISTERMINAL: is given AFTER the movement is completed and is EXTRINSICCONCURRENT: is received DURING the skill performance. It can be INTRINSIC or
EXTRINSIC
KNOWLEDGE OF PERFORMANCE (KP):
is feedback that is given about the
QUALITY
of the movement. It can be
INTERNAL
and
KINAESTHETIC
KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS (KR):
is about the result or
OUTCOME
of the movement and is
EXTRINSIC.
EG: Times Slide28
MOTIVATION AND AROUSAL
MOTIVATION is the DRIVE to learn and perform well. It is the
DIRECTION
of behaviour (the amount of emotional energy) and
INTENSITY
of behaviour (the course of action related to the emotion). It is linked to AMBITION and also whether someone PARTICIPATES. Intensity of Behaviour is also called AROUSAL. There are 2 aspects:SOMATIC or PHYSIOLOGICAL AROUSAL: the state of the body- heart rateCOGNITIVE or PSYCHOLOGICAL AROUSAL relates to the mind – worryMOTIVATION can be INTRINSIC (when a performer participates for their own reasons – GOALS) and EXTRINSIC (when they perform for REWARDS) Slide29
The
DRIVE THEORY
of Arousal. There relationship is
LINEAR
between
AROUSAL and PERFORMANCE. The quality of the performance depends on how well the skill has been LEARNED as the more learned they are the more the DOMINANT RESPONSES is most likely to be givenThe INVERTED U THEORY of Arousal. Performance increases as arousal does but reaches a point called the OPTIMUM POINT or THRESHOLD OF AROUSAL. It is mid way to maximum arousal and can vary. It depends on PERSONALITY, TYPE OF TASK, STAGE OF LEARNING, EXPERIENCE The best performance levels occur at MODERATE levels of arousal. If the performer goes past this point then they become OVER AROUSED and their performance DETERIORATES. The CATASTROPHE THEORY of Arousal. This is when performance is influenced by the relationship between SOMATIC and COGNITIVE arousal. As Somatic arousal increases so does the performance BUT performance reaches OPTIMUM level ONLY if the cognitive arousal is kept LOW at the same time. If it is high the athlete goes OVER THE EDGE and performance drops CATASTROPHICALLY. The DRIVE REDUCTION theory describes the LOSS of
MOTIVATION
when learning a skill. At first there is
DRIVE
and the
S-R BOND
is strong but this leads to low motivation. New
GOALS
must be introduced to rectify Slide30
Draw the A, B and C theories in the form of a graph. Use the X Axis to represent the Units of LEVEL OF AROUSAL. Use the Y Axis to represent units QUALITY OF PERFORMANCE. Both axis from LOW to HIGH
Show the OPTIMUM POINT. You may need 2 lines for Catastrophe Theory
Use arrows to draw a flow diagram for the Drive Reduction Theory re ordering these 5 terms:
The skill is mastered – Desire to learn a new skill – The drive reduces – Drive to satisfy the need to learn is applied – new goals.
Explain how
INHIBITION (boredom) reduces driveFor the DRIVE theory explain with practical example why high arousal would benefit elite performers rather than novices. Explain how the optimum level would change in this theory for the novice. EG: What level of arousal would they best need? Explain why. For the INVERTED U theory UNDER and OVER AROUSAL can seriously affect learning of skills. Describe how the concentration on environmental CUES and SELECTIVE ATTENTION would affect learning when they are under aroused:. Now...When over aroused how might HIGH ANXIETY, ATTENTIONAL FIELD (the area of which the performer is aware) HYPERVIGILANCE (panic) CONCENTRATION affect performance Suggest ways that psychologists can reduce anxiety levels in graph 3. Explain when you have experienced Catastrophe. Why did it happen?Slide31
MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES
We need to consider different
STRATEGIES
to encourage children to participate. Especially those who are
DISAFFECTED.
Motivation can be EXTERNAL and can be TANGIBLE (you can touch it such as Trophies) or INTANGIBLE (cannot be touched such as Praise) However EXTERNAL Motivation is a SHORT TERM strategy compared to INTERNAL motivation. It is the key to LIFELONG SPORT and is established through POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT and setting GOALSMOTIVATIONAL strategies are essential to learning and performance. Critically evaluate the following strategies by explaining how each will affect lifelong participation and a healthy balanced lifestyleProviding FUN ACTIVITIESEnsuring SOCIAL EXPERIENCESUse of ATTAINABLE TARGETSIncreasing SKILL AND FITNESS LEVELSUsing ROLE MODELS Use of POSITIVE REINFORCEMENTEnsuring PERSONAL BENEFITTRANSFER OF PREVIOUSLY LEARNED SKILLSSlide32
The 3 THEORIES OF LEARNING MOVEMENT SKILLS
OPERANT CONDITIONING:
Behaviour can be
MODIFIED
or
CONDITIONED if directed towards a STIMULUS in a STRUCTURED ENVIRONMENT. It strengthens the S-R BOND. This link is called an ASSOCIATION or CONNECTION. The learner uses TRIAL and ERROR. When the correct response is given the learner is REWARDED through POSITIVE REINFORCEMENTCOGNITIVE THEORY: Learning is best achieved by presenting the WHOLE skill to the learner. It depends on PERCEPTION. The learner will use CURRENT KNOWLEDGE and PREVIOUS EXPERIENCE. They use MENTAL PROCESSES called INTERVENING VARIABLES. Solving the whole problem is known as INSIGHT or INTUITIVE LEARNING. It is a GESTALTIST theory (German word for whole pattern)The whole is greater than the sum of its parts. They believe that PART learning is ineffective because the learner does not have all the informationOBSERVATIONAL LEARNING:
SOCIAL
learning involves
IMITATING
others. Most learning takes place this way. It is most likely to be copied if the
DEMONSTRATOR
is a
SIGNIFICANT OTHER
to the observer.
ROLE MODELS
have huge influence and is most likely to occur in the same
GENDER
. It requires
VISUAL GUIDANCE
creating a
MENTAL PICTURE. Slide33
Critically Evaluate the 3 Theories of Learning using the following information
OPERANT CONDITIONING: Skinner’s Rat experiment allowed a rat in a cage to experiment with levers. Eventually it pressed the correct lever and it gave a food pellet.
Task – Design a practice session which uses Operant Conditioning. Use the terms Connection, Association, Trail and Error, S-R Bond, Reinforcement, Conditioning, Modified and Reward in your answer
COGNITIVE THEORY: Design a session using this theory to develop skills in passing a receiving a basketball. How could
Gestaltist
theorists use this theory in unsafe or complex skills? EG: RugbyDescribe the differences between Connectionist and Gelstaltist Theorists. Which do you agree with?BANDURA (a psychologist) suggested that Observational Learning can only take place if 4 elements are present. Design a practice session which applies the 4 elements. ATTENTION: The learner must focus on the demonstrationRETENTION: The learner must store the image if they are to replicate itMOTOR PRODUCTION: The learner must have the physical ability to copy itMOTIVATION: The learner must be driven to copy Slide34
REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement is the process that causes the
STIMULUS RESPONSE (S-R) BOND
to
STRENGTHEN
. This ensures the response REOCCURS. There are 21) POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT: is when the coach or teacher gives APPROVAL when the DESIRED behaviour is demonstrated. Approval may be TANGIBLE (certificate, trophy) or INTANGIBLE (praise) NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT: is when the NEGATIVE or AVVERSIVE STIMULUS (this is Disapproval) is taken away when the desired response is performed. It strengthens the S-R bond because it WEAKENS the INCORRECT LEARNING BOND. EG: When learning to dive a swimmer experiences pain on contact. When the pain is withdrawn if performed correctly the negative reinforcement is removed. It is NOT punishmentPUNISHMENT: is when a NOXIOUS (unpleasant) STIMULUS is given and this prevents that behaviour reoccurring. EG: Being sent off for a high tackle. The red card is the noxious stimulusTHORNDIKE (a psychologist) believed that 3 rules are applied to strengthen the S-R Bond. A) The LAW OF EFFECT: behaviour is reinforced with Positive Reinforcement it will strengthen the S-R Bond B) The LAW OF EXERCISE: The S-R Bond is strengthened with PRACTICE C) The LAW OF READINESS: the performer must ready both mentally and physicallySlide35
TRANSFER OF LEARNING –
5
Types
TRANSFER
is the influence that one skill has on the learning and performance of another skill.
Schmidt said “No learning takes place without transfer”. It has huge LINKS with VARIABLE PRACTICE and SCHEMA theory. In childhood we learn FUNDAMENTAL MOVEMENT SKILLS (such as hopping) which then become the BASIS of advanced skills (side stepping). Children develop a POOL OF EXPERIENCE or MOVEMENT SCHEMAS. These transfer into difficult Motor Programmes 1) POSITIVE: when one skill helps the learning of another. EG: Learning to throw positively transfers to the arm action of the tennis serve 2) NEGATIVE: when one skill HINDERS or prevents the learning of another. EG: Badminton requires loose wrists. Tennis requires firm wrists 3) PROACTIVE: A previously learned skill influences a skill you are currently learning EG: Throwing will help you learn the volleyball serve 4) RETROACTIVE: when a newly learned skill helps you perform a skill you already know EG: Learning the tennis serve may help you to better over arm throw in cricket 5) BI LATERAL: when a performance of one side of the body influences the other side EG: A right footed player learns to play left footedSlide36
1) Good coaches and teachers ensure that during the session
POSITIVE TRANSFER
takes place and that its effects are
OPTIMISED
(the effects are maximised) How can coaches ensure
OPTIMISED TRANSFER. Use the following points to answer this question. Give practical examples:VARIABLE PRACTICEDEMONSTRATIONSINFORMATION PROCESSINGTHORNDIKES 3 LAWSSTAGE OF LEARNING of a previously learned skillDeveloping a POOL OF EXPERIENCEREINFORCEMENT and strengthening the S-R BOND 2) NEGATIVE TRANSFER can be avoided by ensuring the practice ENVIRONMENT is close to the real situation, and by avoiding CONFLICTING skills. Apply these concepts to your sport 3) Describe and explain the STRONG RELATIONSHIP between Transfer and SCHEMA and VARIABLE PRACTICE. Why do GESTALTISTS like this theory?