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Slide1
Josef F. Steufer/Getty Images
Prosocial Relations
Module 37
Slide2
37-1: WHY DO WE BEFRIEND OR FALL IN LOVE WITH SOME PEOPLE BUT NOT OTHERS?
ProximityProximity—geographic nearness—is friendship’s most powerful predictor
Provides
opportunity for aggression or friendship, but much more often breeds the latterMere exposure effect: The phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them
Prosocial Relations
Attraction
The Psychology of Attraction
Slide3
Modern MatchmakingInternet-formed friendships and romantic relationships are on average slightly more likely to last and be satisfying.
A national U.S. survey showed that nearly a quarter of heterosexual and two-thirds of same-sex couples met online.
Speed-dating
For many people, 4 minutes is sufficient to form a feeling about a conversational partner and to register whether the partner likes them.People who fear rejection often elicit it.
Choices may be more superficial, especially given many
options.Women tend to be more choosy than men.
Prosocial Relations
Attraction
The Psychology of Attraction
Slide4
Physical Attractiveness
Affects first impressionPredicts frequency of dating and
popularity
Is influenced by cultural ideals and personal feelings Similarity Includes
s
hared attitudes, beliefs, interests, age, religion, race, education, intelligence, smoking behavior, and economic statusThe reward theory of attraction holds that we will like those whose behavior is rewarding to us, including those who are both able and willing to help us achieve our goals.
Prosocial Relations
Attraction
The Psychology of Attraction
Slide5
The answer varies by culture and over time.Some adult physical features, such as a youthful form
and symmetrical face, seem attractive everywhere.
Appealing traits enhance feelings of physical attractiveness.
WHAT DO WE MEAN BY “ATTRACTIVE”?
Slide6
37-2: HOW DOES ROMANTIC LOVE TYPICALLY CHANGE AS TIME PASSES?
Passionate LoveThe two-factor theory of emotion can help us understand
passionate love
:Emotions have two ingredients: physical arousal and cognitive appraisal.Arousal from any source can enhance an emotion, depending on how we interpret and label the arousal.
Sexual desire + a growing attachment = the passion of romantic
love Prosocial Relations
Attraction
Romantic Love
Slide7
Companionate LoveAlthough the desire and attachment of passionate love often
endure, the intensity generally fades into a steadier companionate love—a deep, affectionate attachment
Passion-facilitating
hormones (testosterone, dopamine, adrenaline ) give way to another, oxytocin, that supports feelings of trust, calmness, and bondingEquity is
an
important key to satisfying and enduring relationshipSelf-disclosure deepens intimacyA third key to enduring love is positive support
Prosocial Relations
Attraction
Romantic Love
Slide8
37-3: WHEN ARE
PEOPLE MOST—AND LEAST—LIKELY TO
HELP?
Altruism is an unselfish concern for the welfare of others.Altruism became a major concern of social psychologists after an especially vile act. On March 13, 1964, a stalker repeatedly stabbed Kitty Genovese, then raped her as she lay dying outside her Queens, New York, apartment at 3:30 a.m. Genovese’s screams for help attracted attention,
but
no one called the police until 3:50 a.m., after the attacker had already fled.
Prosocial
Relations
Altruism
Slide9
Bystander EffectPeople are most likely to help when they notice an incident,
interpret it as an emergency, and assume responsibility for helping (Darley and colleagues). When more people share responsibility for helping, there is a
diffusion of responsibility.
The bystander effect is the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.
Prosocial Relations
AltruismBystander Intervention
Slide10
The
Decision-Making Process for Bystander
Intervention
Prosocial Relations
Altruism
Bystander Intervention
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37-4: HOW DO SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY AND SOCIAL NORMS EXPLAIN HELPING BEHAVIOR?
Why do we help?
Social exchange theory
Maximizing rewards and minimizing costs (accountants call it cost-benefit analysis; philosophers call it utilitarianism; psychologists call it social exchange theory)Reciprocity norm
Expectation that people will respond favorably to each other by returning benefits for
benefit Social-responsibility norm
Expectation that people should help those who depend on them
Prosocial Relations
Altruism
The Norms for Helping
Slide12
37-5: HOW DO SOCIAL TRAPS AND MIRROR-IMAGE PERCEPTIONS FUEL SOCIAL CONFLICT?
ConflictPerceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas in which people become enmeshed in potentially destructive processes that often produce unwanted results
Among these processes are social traps and distorted perceptions
Prosocial RelationsPeacemakingElements of Conflict
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Social TrapsSituation in which conflicting parties, by each pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behaviorSocial traps harm our collective
well-beingSocial traps challenge us to reconcile our right to pursue our personal well-being with our responsibility for the well-being of all. Psychologists have explored ways to convince
people
to cooperate—agreed-upon regulations, better communication, and awareness of our responsibilities toward community, nation, and the whole of humanity
Prosocial Relations
Peacemaking
Elements of Conflict
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Enemy PerceptionsPsychologists have noted that those in conflict have
a curious tendency to form diabolical images of one another.Mirror-image
perceptions: Mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive. Self-fulfilling prophecy: A belief that leads to its own fulfilment. As enemies change, so do perceptions (for example, a negative American view of
Japan
during WWII later became positive).Prosocial RelationsPeacemaking
Elements of Conflict
Slide15
37-6: HOW CAN WE TRANSFORM FEELINGS OF PREJUDICE, AGGRESSION, AND CONFLICT INTO ATTITUDES THAT PROMOTE PEACE?
Research indicates that in some cases contact and cooperation can be transformational.
Contact
Most effective when contact is free of competition and equal status exists.Across a quarter-million people studied in 38 nations, friendly contact with ethnic minorities, older people, and people with disabilities has usually led to less prejudice.
Contact
is not always enough. Also important are cooperation, communication, and conciliation.
Prosocial Relations
Peacemaking
Promoting Peace
Slide16
GRIT
(Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction) is alternative
to
conflict
, to
war or surrender
.
Conciliation
When real-life conflicts become intense, a third-party mediator may
facilitate
much-needed
communication
.
Mediators can help each party to voice its viewpoint and to understand the other’s needs and goals; change
a
competitive
win-lose
orientation to
a
cooperative
win-win
one
.
Communication
Cooperative contact, not
contact
alone
,
reduces
conflict
.
A shared predicament or
superordinate goal
can have a unifying effect.
Experiments with teens in 11 countries confirm that cooperative learning can maintain or enhance student achievement.
