STATE OF THE ART WHAT IS RACIAL DOMINATION Matthew Desmond Department of Sociology University - PDF document

analyticalclaritytotheconceptofrace,aswellastoitsrelationshipwithethnicityandnationality.Perhapsmoreimportant,alongwithadvancingacleardefinitionofracialdomination,wehaveidentifiedfivefallacies„recurrentinmanypublicdebates„thatoneshouldavoidwhenthinkingaboutracism.Althoughwebelievethispaperwillprovideguidanceforadvancedscholarsconductingempiricalandtheoreticalworkonrace,wehavecomposeditprimarilywithabroaderaudienceinmind.WHATISRACE?YoudonotcomeintothisworldAfricanorEuropeanorAsian;rather,thisworldcomesintoyou.Asliterallyhundredsofscientistshaveargued,youarenotbornwitharaceinthesamewayyouarebornwithfingers,eyes,andhair.Fingers,eyes,andhairarenaturalcreations,whereasraceisasocialfabricationDuster2003;Graves.Wedefineraceasasymboliccategory,basedonphenotypeorancestryandcon-structedaccordingtospecificsocialandhistoricalcontexts,thatismisrecognizedasanaturalcategoryThisdefinitiondeservestobeunpacked.SymbolicCategoryAsymboliccategorybelongstotherealmofideas,meaning-making,andlanguage.Itissomethingactivelycreatedandrecreatedbyhumanbeingsratherthanpregiven,needingonlytobelabeled.Symboliccategoriesmarkdifferencesbetweengroupedpeopleorthings.Indoingso,theyactuallybringthosepeopleorthingsintoexis-Bourdieu2003.Forexample,thetermNativeAmericanŽisasymboliccategorythatencompassesallpeoplesindigenoustothelandthatisknown,today,astheUnitedStates.ButthetermNativeAmericanŽdidnotexistbeforenon-NativeAmericanscametotheAmericas.Choctaws,Crows,Iroquois,Hopis,Dakotas,Yaki-mas,Utes,anddozensofotherpeoplebelongingtoindigenoustribesexisted.ThetermNativeAmericanŽflattensunderonehomogenizingheadingtheimmenselydifferenthistories,languages,traditionalbeliefs,andrichculturalpracticesofthesevarioustribes.Innamingdifferentraces,racialcategoriescreatedifferentraces.Suchinsightsintotheimportanceofthesymbolichavenotalwaysbeenappre-ciated.Consider,forexample,OliverCromwellCoxshypothesisthatracialexploi-tationandraceprejudicedevelopedamongEuropeanswiththeriseofcapitalismandnationalism,andthatbecauseoftheworldwideramificationsofcapitalism,allracialantagonismscanbetracedtothepoliciesandattitudesoftheleadingcapitalistpeople,thehitepeopleofEuropeandNorthAmericaŽ1948,p.322.ThoughfewscholarstodaywouldagreefullywithCoxsreduction,manycontinuetoadvancestructuralistclaims,filteringracialconflictthroughthelogicofclassconflictReich1981,regardingracialformationasapoliticalstrategye.g.,Marx1998,orconcentratingonthelegalconstructionofracialcategoriese.g.,Haney-LópezHelpfulastheyare,structuralistaccountsoftentreatraceassomethinggivenandaccepted„thatis,asarealŽlabelthatattachesitselftopeopleorasanimposedcategorythatformsracialidentityMarx1998„andtherebyoverlookhowactorscreate,reproduce,andresistsystemsofracialclassification,dynamicsdocumentedinworkssuchasKimberlyDaCostasMakingMultiracials,ThomasGuglielmosWhiteonArrival,JohnJackson,Jr.s,RobinSheriffsDreamingEquality,orJohnHartigan,Jr.sRacialSitu-.PoliticalandlegalracialtaxonomiesdonotnecessarilyalignwithquotidianprocessesofrecognitionandidentificationpracticedbyclassifiedsubjectsMatthewDesmondandMustafaEmirbayerDUBOISREVIEW:SOCIALSCIENCERESEARCHONRACE6:2,2009 Loveman1999.Sincenoinstitution,regardlessofitspower,monopolizesthedefinitionofraceBrubakerandCooper,2000,wemustresistassuminganeasycorrespondencebetweenofficialŽcategorizationsandthepracticalaccomplish-mentsofracialidentification.PhenotypeorAncestryRacealsoisbasedonphenotypeorancestry.Apersonsphenotypeisherorhisphysicalappearanceandconstitution,includingskeletalstructure,height,hairtex-ture,eyecolor,andskintone.Apersonsancestryisherorhisfamilylineage,whichoftenincludestribal,regional,ornationalaffiliations.Thesymboliccategoryofraceorganizespeopleintoboundedgroupingsbasedontheirphenotype,ancestry,orboth.Itisdifficulttosaywhichmattersmore,phenotypeorancestry,indeterminingracialmembershipintheUnitedStates.Insomesettings,ancestrytrumpspheno-type;inothers,theoppositeistrue.Recentimmigrantsoftenarepigeonholedinoneofthedominantracialcatego-riesbecauseoftheirphenotype;however,manyresistthisclassificationbecauseoftheirancestry.Forinstance,uponarrivingintheUnitedStates,manyfirstgenera-tionWestIndianimmigrants,quitefamiliarwithracismagainstAfricanAmericans,activelyresistthelabelBlack.ŽDespitetheirefforts,manyareconsideredAfricanAmericanbecauseoftheirdarkskinthatis,theylookŽBlacktotheAmericaneyeThechildrenofWestAfricanimmigrants,manyofwhomaredisconnectedfromtheirparentsancestries,morereadilyacceptthelabelBlackŽWaters1999.Andmanyindividualswithmixedheritageoftenaretreatedasthoughtheybelongedonlytoonerace.ŽSomepeople,bycontrast,relyontheirphenotypetoformaracialidentity,thoughtheyareoftengroupedinanotherracialcategorybasedontheirancestry.SusieGuilloryPhipps,ablond-hairedblue-eyedwomanwhoalwaysconsideredherselfWhite,Ždiscovered,uponglancingatherbirthcertificatewhileapplyingforapassport,thathernativestate,Louisiana,consideredherBlack.ŽThereasonwasthatLouisianagroupedpeopleintoracialcategoriesaccordingtotheonethirty-secondrule,Žarulethatstatedthatanyonewhowasonethirty-secondBlack„regardlessofwhattheylookedlike„waslegallyBlack.ŽIn1982,SusieGuilloryPhippssuedLouisianafortherighttobeWhite.Shelost.ThestategenealogistdiscoveredthatPhippswasthegreat-great-great-great-grandchildofaWhiteAlabamaplanta-tionownerandhisBlackmistressand,therefore„althoughallofPhippssotherances-torswereWhite„shewastobeconsideredBlack.ŽThisoutlandishlawwasfinallyerasedfromthebooksin1983.Inthiscase,PhippssancestryasidentifiedbythewasmoreimportantindeterminingherracethanherphenotypeDavis1991SocialandHistoricalContextsRacialtaxonomiesareboundtotheirspecificsocialandhistoricalcontexts.TheracialcategoriesthatexistinAmericamaynotexistinotherpartsoftheglobe.InSouthAfrica,racialgroupsareorganizedaroundthreedominantcategories:White,Black,andColoured.ŽDuringapartheid,theColouredcategorywasdesignedtoincludeallmixed-raceŽpeopleSparks2006.Morerecently,theBlackcategoryhasbeenexpandedtoincludeallgroupsoppressedunderapartheid,notonlythoseofAfricanheritagebutalsothoseofIndiandescentandasof2008ChineseSouthAfricans.InBrazil,fiveracialcategoriesareemployedintheofficialcensus:PardoPretoAmarelo,andWhatisRacialDomination?DUBOISREVIEW:SOCIALSCIENCERESEARCHONRACE6:2,2009 However,ineverydayusage,manyBraziliansidentifythemselvesandoneanotherthroughseveralotherracialterms„includingmorenoothertypeofbrownmorenolightbrownanothertypeofblack,and„whichhavemuchmoretodowiththetintofonesskinthanwithonesancestryStephens1999;Telles.BeforeraciallanguagewasoutlawedbytheCommunistregime,Chineseracialtaxonomieswerebasedfirstandforemostonbloodpurity,thenonhair,thenodor,thenbrainmass,thenfinally„andofleastimportance„skincolor,which,accordingtothetaxonomy,wasdividedintonolessthantenshadesDikötter1992AndinJapan,agroupcalledtheBurakaminisconsideredtobeuncleanandisthoughttoconstituteaseparaterace,althoughitisimpossibletodistinguishsome-onewithBurakaminancestryfromtherestoftheJapanesepopulation1998;Searle-ChatterjeeandSharma,1994Cross-nationalcomparisons,then,revealthatsystemsofracialclassificationvarygreatlyfromonecountrytothenext.Racialcategories,therefore,areboundtocertaingeographicandsocialcontexts.Theyalsoare,changingbetweendifferenthistoricaleras.Asahistoricalproduct,raceisquitenew.Beforethesixteenthcentury,race,asweknowittoday,didnotexist.DuringtheMiddleAges,prejudiceswereformedandwarswagedagainstotherŽpeople,butthoseotherŽpeoplewerenotcategorizedorunderstoodaspeopleofotherraces.Insteadofthecolorline,theprimarysocialdivisioninthosetimeswasthatbetweencivilizedŽanduncivilized.ŽTheracialcategoriessofamiliartousonlybegantocalcifyaroundthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury,ameretwohundredyearsagoGossett1965;Smedley1999.Infact,theword,race,Žhasaveryrecentorigin;itonlyobtaineditsmodernmeaninginthelateeighteenthcenturyHannaford1996Butracialdominationsurvivesbycoveringitstracks,byerasingitsownhistory.Itencouragesustothinkofthemysticboundariesseparating,say,WestfromEast,WhitefromBlack,BlackfromAsian,orAsianfromHispanic,astimelesssepara-tions,asdivisionsthathavealwaysbeenandwillalwaysbe.Wewouldbewellservedtoremember,withStuartHall,thatwemustgrapplewiththehistoricalspecificityofraceinthemodernworldŽ1980,p.308togainanaccurateunder-standingofracialphenomena.IntheAmericancontext,theIndianŽwasinventedwithinthecontextofEuropeancolonization,asindigenouspeoplesoftheAmericaswerelumpedtogetherunderonerubrictobekilled,uprooted,andexploited.WhitenessandBlacknesswereinventedasantipodeswithinthecontextofEnglish,andlaterAmerican,slavery.Morethananyotherinstitution,slaverywoulddictatethecareerofAmericanracism:Blacknessbecameassociatedwithbondage,inferi-ority,andsocialdeath;Whitenesswithfreedom,superiority,andlife.TheMexicanAmericanwasinventedwithinthecontextofthecolonizationofMexico.Attheendofthenineteenthcentury,theAsianAmericanwasinventedasaresponsetoimmi-grationfromtheFarEast.Whitenessexpandedduringtheearlyyearsofthetwen-tiethcenturyasnewimmigrantsfromSouthern,Central,andEasternEuropetransformedthemselvesfromlesserWhitesŽto,simply,Whites.ŽAllthewhile,Whitesupremacywaslegitimatedbyracialdiscoursesinphilosophy,literature,andscience.Bythemiddleofthetwentiethcentury,theracialcategoriessofamiliartoustodaywerefirmlyestablished.Althoughthesecondhalfofthetwentiethcenturybroughtgreatchangesintherealmofrace„includingtheriseoftheCivilRightsMovementandthefallofJimCrow„theracialcategoriesthatemergedinAmericaovertheprevious300yearsremained,forthemostpart,unchallenged.Americans,Whiteandnon-Whitealike,understoodthemselvesasraced,and,byandlarge,acceptedthedominantracialclassificationeveniftheyrefusedtoacceptthetermsofracialinequality.MatthewDesmondandMustafaEmirbayerDUBOISREVIEW:SOCIALSCIENCERESEARCHONRACE6:2,2009 MisrecognizedasNaturalThelastpartofthedefinitionwehavebeenunpackinghastodowithaprocessofnaturalization.Thiswordsignifiesametamorphosisofsorts,wheresomethingcre-atedbyhumansismistakenassomethingdictatedbynature.Racialcategoriesarenaturalizedwhenthesesymbolicgroupings„theproductsofspecifichistoricalcontexts„arewronglyconceivedasnaturalandunchangeable.Wemisrecognizeraceasnaturalwhenwebegintothinkthatracialcleavagesandinequalitiescanbeexplainedbypointingtoattributessomehowinherentintheraceitselfasiftheywerebiologicalinsteadofunderstandinghowsocialpowers,economicforces,polit-icalinstitutions,andculturalpracticeshavebroughtaboutthesedivisions.Naturalizedcategoriesarepowerful;theyarethecategoriesthroughwhichweunderstandtheworldaroundus.Suchcategoriesdividetheworldalongotherwisearbitrarylinesandmakeusbelievethatthereisnothingatallarbitraryaboutsuchadivision.Whatismore,whencategoriesbecomenaturalized,alternativewaysofviewingtheworldbegintoappearmoreandmoreimpossible.Why,wemightask,shouldweonlyhavefivemainracialgroups?Whynotninety-five?Whyshouldwedividepeopleaccordingtotheirskincolor?Whynotbaseracialdivisionsaccordingtofootsize,earshape,teethcolor,armlength,orheight?Whyisancestrysoimportant?Whynotbaseourracialcategoriesonregions„North,South,East,andWest?Onemightfindthesesuggestivequestionssilly,and,indeed,theyare.Buttheyarenosillierthantheideathatpeopleshouldbesortedintodifferentracialgroupsaccordingskincolororbloodcomposition.TotwistBourdieusphrase,wemightsay,whenitcomestorace,oneneverdoubtsenough,p.36ThesystemofracialclassificationatworkinAmericatodayisnottheonlysystemimaginable,norisittheonlyonethathasexistedintheyounglifeoftheUnitedStates.Raceisfarfromfixed;rather,itsforms,dependingonthesocial,economic,political,andculturalpressuresoftheday,haveshiftedandfluctuatedinwhimsicalanddrasticwaysovertimeDuster2001.Indeed,todaysmultiracialmovementischallengingAmericasdominantracialcategorieswhichremainedrelativelystableduringthelatterhalfofthetwentiethcenturyaspeopleofmixedheritagearerefusingtoacceptasgiventhestatesracialclassificationsystem.Raceissocialthroughandthrough.Thus,wecanregardraceasa.Itisafictionbecauseithasnonaturalbearing,butitisnonethelesswellfoundedsincemostpeopleinsocietyprovideracewitharealexistenceanddividetheworldthroughthislens.ETHNICITYANDNATIONALITYThecategoriesofethnicityandnationalityareintrinsicallyboundupwithrace.Ethnicityreferstoasharedlifestyleinformedbycultural,historical,religious,andnationalaffiliations.Nationalityisequatedwithcitizenship,membershipinaspecificpoliticallydelineatedterritorycontrolledbyagovernmentcf.Weber1946.Race,ethnicity,andnationalityareoverlappingsymboliccategoriesthatinfluencehowweseetheworldaroundus,howweviewourselves,andhowwedivideusŽfromthem.ŽThecategoriesaremutuallyreinforcinginsofaraseachcategoryeducates,upholds,andisinformedbytheothers.ThisiswhythesethreecategoriescannotbeunderstoodinisolationfromoneanotherLoveman1999.Forexample,ifsomeoneidentifiesasethnicallyNorwegian,which,forthem,mightincludeasharedlifestylecomposedofNorwegianhistoryandfolklore,language,culturalritualsandfestivals,andfood,theymayalsoreferenceanationality,basedinthestateofNorway,aswellWhatisRacialDomination?DUBOISREVIEW:SOCIALSCIENCERESEARCHONRACE6:2,2009 asaracialgroup,White,sincenearlyallpeopleofNorwegiandescentwouldbeclassifiedasWhitebyAmericanstandards.Here,ethnicityisinformedbynationalitypastorpresentandsignifiesrace.Ethnicityoftencarvesoutdistinctionsandidentitieswithinracialgroups.TenpeoplecanbeconsideredAsianAmericanaccordingtoourmodernracialtaxonomy;however,thosetenpeoplemighthaveparentsorgrandparentsthatimmigratedtotheUnitedStatesfromtendifferentcountries,includingThailand,Vietnam,Cam-bodia,Singapore,China,SouthKorea,NorthKorea,Japan,Indonesia,andLaos.Theymightspeakdifferentlanguages,upholddifferenttraditions,worshipdifferentdeities,enjoydifferentkindsoffood,andgothroughdifferentexperiences.Whatismore,manyAsiancountrieshavehistoriesofconflictsuchasChinaandJapan,NorthandSouthKorea.Accordingly,wecannotassumethataChineseAmericanandaJapaneseAmericanhavesimilarlifestylesorseetheworldthroughasharedvisionsim-plybecausetheyarebothclassifiedasAsianŽunderAmericanracialrubrics.fore,justasrace,ethnicity,andnationalitycannotbeseparatedfromoneanother,neithercanallthreecategoriesbecollapsedintoonecf.Brubakeretal.,2004Raceandethnicityaswellasnationalityarebothmarkedandmade.TheyarethroughAmericasracialtaxonomy,aswellasaglobalethnictaxonomy,whichseekstodividetheworldintodistinctcategories.Inthiscase,raceandethnicityimposethemselvesonyou.Theyarethroughamultiplicityofdiffer-entpractices„gestures,sayings,tastes,waysofwalking,religiousconvictions,opin-ions,andsoforth.Inthiscase,youperformraceorethnicity.Ethnicityisaveryfluid,layered,andsituationalconstruct.OnemightfeelveryAmericanwhenvoting,veryIrishwhencelebratingSt.PatricksDay,veryCatholicwhenattendingEastermass,veryNewYorkerŽwhenridingthesubway,andveryNorthernwhenvisitingarelativeinSouthCarolinaWaters1990.Race,too,canbeperformedtovaryingdegrees.OnemightactveryBlackŽwhencelebratingKwanzawithrelativesbutmayrepressonesBlacknesswhileinabusinessmeetingwithWhitecolleagues.Raceasperformanceispredicatedonactions,onthethingsonedoesintheworld,onhowonebehaves.ŽAsanthropologistJohnJackson,Jr.notes,YouarenotBlackbecauseyouareinessenceBlack;youareBlack...becauseofhowyouact„andnotjustintermsofonefieldofbehaviorsay,intellectualachievementinschoolbecauseofhowyoujuggleandcombinemanydifferentlyracializedandclasswalking,talking,laughing,watchingamovie,standing,emoting,partyinginanevery-daymatrixofperformativepossibilitiesŽ2001,pp.171,188.Becauseracialdomina-tionattachestoskincolor,adark-skinnedpersoncannevercompletelyescapeitsclutchessimplybyactingnotBlack.ŽButthatpersonmaychooseonesayingoveranother,onekindofclothingoveranother,onemodeofinteractionoveranother,becauseshebelievessuchanactionmakeshermoreorlessBlackcf.Johnson2003.Thisiswhyweclaimthatraceandethnicityareascribedandachieved,bothmarkedandmade.Onemaycreate,reproduce,accept,oractivelyresistimposedsystemsofracialclassification;onemaychoosetoaccentuateonesethnicityorracialidentity.Butinmanycases,oneschoices,onesracialorethnicperformances,willhavelittleimpactonhowoneislabeledbyothers.ApersonborntoChineseparentsbutadopted,atinfancy,byaJamaicanAmericancouplemightidentifyasethnicallyJamaican.ShemightenjoyJamaicancuisine,readJamaicanliterature,listentoJamaicanmusic,andstudyJamaicanhistory.However,althoughheradoptedparentsmaybeclassifiedasraciallyBlack,shewouldbeclassifiedasAsian,herracedecidedforher.Thecrucialpointisthatthedegreetowhichanindividualcanslipandslidethroughmultipleethnicidentitiesdependsonthedegreetowhichthoseidentitiesarestigmatized.WhiteAmericanstypicallyenjoyahighdegreeoffluidityandMatthewDesmondandMustafaEmirbayerDUBOISREVIEW:SOCIALSCIENCERESEARCHONRACE6:2,2009 freedomwhenself-identifyingethnically.Theycanchoosetogiveequalweighttoallaspectsoftheirethnicityortohighlightcertainpartswhilede-emphasizingothers.Forinstance,thesamepersoncouldidentifyaseitherhalf-Italian,quarter-Polish,quarter-Swiss,ŽPolishandItalian,ŽorjustItalian.ŽManypeopleofcolordonotenjoythesamedegreeofchoice.SomeonewhosefatherisArabAmericanandwhosemotherisDutchAmericancouldnotsoeasilygetawaywithethnicallyidentifyingonlyasDutch.ŽInsomeinstances,non-WhitesmayperformethnicityinordertoresistcertainracialclassificationsaswhenAfricanmigrantsteachtheirchildrentospeakwithanaccentsotheymightavoidbeingidentifiedasAfricanAmericans;inotherinstances,theymight,inanoppositeway,attempttocleansethemselvesofallethnicmarkersbetheylinguistic,religious,orculturalinnaturetoavoidbecomingvictimsofdiscriminationorstigmatization.Eitherway,theireffortsmayprovefutilesincethosebelongingtodominatedracialgroupshaveconsiderablylessethnicagencythanthosebelongingtothedominant„andhencenormalized„group.OnereasonwhyraceandethnicityarerelativelydecoupledforWhiteAmericansbutboundtightlytogetherfornon-WhiteAmericansisfoundinthehistoryofthenationsimmigrationpoliciesandpractices.Untilthelatenineteenthcentury,immi-grationtoAmericawasderegulatedandencouragedwiththeexceptionofChineseexclusionlaws;however,attheturnofthecentury,native-bornWhiteAmericans,whoblamedimmigrantsfortheriseofurbanslums,crime,andclassconflict,begancallingforimmigrationrestrictions.Popularandpoliticalsupportforrestrictionsswelledandresultedinthedevelopmentofastrictimmigrationpolicy,culminatingintheJohnson-ReedActof1924.Americasnewimmigrationlaw,completewithnationalquotasandracialrestrictionsoncitizenship,wouldfundamentallyrealignthecountrysracialtaxonomy.ThenationaloriginssystemclassifiedEuropeansasnationalitiesandassignedquotasinahierarchyofdesirability,ŽwriteshistorianMaeNgaiinImpossibleSubjects:IllegalAliensandtheMakingofModernAmericautatthesametimethelawdeemedallEuropeanstobepartofaWhiterace,distinctfromthoseconsideredtobenothite.Euro-Americanidentitiesturnedbothonethnicity„thatis,anationality-basedculturalidentitythatisdefinedascapableoftransformationandassimilation„andonaracialidentitydefinedby2004,p.7.Non-Whites,ontheotherhand,wereeitherdeniedentryintotheUnitedStatesaswasthecaseforAsianmigrantsorwereassociatedwithillegalimmigrationthroughharshbordercontrolpoliciesaswasthecaseforMexicansIndeed,theimmigrationlawsofthe1920sappliedthenewlyformedconceptofnationaloriginŽonlytoEuropeannations;thoseclassifiedasmembersofthecoloredracesŽwereconceivedasbereftofacountryoforigin.Theresult,Ngaiobserves,wasthatunlikeEuro-Americans,whoseethnicandracialidentitiesbecameuncoupledduringthe1920s,AsiansandMexicansethnicandracialidentitiesremained2004,pp.7…8ThehistoryofAmericasimmigrationpolicyunderscorestheintimateconcep-tionbetweenrace,ethnicity,citizenship,andnationalorigin.Racialcategoriesoftenaredefinedandchangedbynationallawmakers,ascitizenshiphasbeenextendedorretracteddependingononesracialascription.TheU.S.justicesystemhasdecideddozensofcasesinwaysthathavesolidifiedcertainracialclassificationsinthelaw.Duringthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies,legalcaseshandeddownrulingsthatofficiallyrecognizedJapanese,Chinese,Burmese,Filipinos,Koreans,NativeAmer-icans,andmixed-raceindividualsasnotWhite.ŽIn1897,aTexasfederalcourtruledthatMexicanswerelegallyWhite.ŽAndIndianAmericans,Syrians,andArabianshavebeencapriciouslyclassifiedasbothWhiteŽandnotWhiteŽWhatisRacialDomination?DUBOISREVIEW:SOCIALSCIENCERESEARCHONRACE6:2,2009 .BrieflyexamininghowthelegaldefinitionsofWhiteandnon-Whitehavechangedovertheyearsdemonstratestheincrediblyunstableandfluidnatureofracialcategories.Italsoshowshowourlegalsystemhelpstoconstructrace.Forinstance,theprerequisitecasesŽthatdeterminedpeoplesraceinordertodeter-minetheireligibilityforU.S.citizenshipresultedinpoisonoussymbolicconse-quences.Deemedworthyofcitizenship,Whitepeoplewereunderstoodtobeupstanding,law-abiding,moral,andintelligent.Conversely,non-Whitepeople,fromwhomcitizenshipwaswithheld,werethoughttobebase,criminal,untrustworthy,andoflesserintelligence.FormostofAmericashistory,courtsdeterminedrace,andracedeterminednationality;thus,nationalitycanonlybeunderstoodwithinthecontextofU.S.racialandethnicconflictLoury2001;Shklar1991FIVEFALLACIESABOUTRACISMAccordingtotheSouthernPovertyLawCenter,therearehundredsofactivehategroupsacrossthecountry.ThesegroupsaremostlyfoundintheSouthernstates„Texas,Georgia,andSouthCarolinahaveoverfortyactivegroupsperstate„butCaliforniarankshighestinthenation,housingwithinitsbordersfifty-threegroups.Forsomepeople,hategroupsepitomizewhattheessenceofracismamountsto:intentionalactsofhumiliationandhatred.Whilesuchactsundoubtedlyareracistinnature,theyarebutthetipoftheiceberg.Todefineracismonlythroughextremegroupsandtheirextremeactsisakintodefiningweatheronlythroughhurricanes.Hurricanesarecertainlyatypeofweatherpattern„aharshandbrutaltype„butsotooaremildrainfalls,lightbreezes,andsunnydays.Likewise,racismismuchbroaderthanviolenceandepithets.Italsocomesinmuchquieter,everyday-ordinarycf.Essed1991Americansaredeeplydividedoverthelegaciesandinnerworkingsofracism,andalargepartofthisdivisionisduetothefactthatmanyAmericansunderstandracisminlimitedormisguidedwaysAlbaetal.,2005;Nadeauetal.,1993.Wehaveidentifiedfivefallacies,recurrentinmanypublicdebatessee,e.g.,HarperandReskin,2005;Reskin1998;Searsetal.,2000,fallaciesoneshouldavoidwhenthinkingaboutracism.IndividualisticFallacy.„Here,racismisassumedtobelongtotherealmofideasandprejudices.RacismisonlythecollectionofnastythoughtsthataracistindividualŽhasaboutanothergroup.Someoneoperatingwiththisfallacythinksofracismasonethinksofacrimeand,therefore,dividestheworldintotwotypesofpeople:thoseguiltyofthecrimeofracismandthoseinnocentofthecrimeWacquant1997.Crucialtothismisconceivednotionofracismisintentionality.DidIintentionallyactracist?DidIcrossthestreetbecauseIwasscaredoftheHispanicmanwalkingtowardme,ordidIcrossfornoapparentreason?ŽUponansweringnoŽtothequestionofintentionality,oneassumesonecanclassifyonesownactionsasnonracist,Ždespitethecharacterofthoseactions,andgoabouthisorherbusinessasinnocent.Thisconceptionofracismsimplywillnotdo,foritfailstoaccountfortheracismthatiswovenintotheveryfabricofourschools,politicalinstitutions,labormarkets,andneighborhoods.Conflatingracismwithprejudice,asHerbertBlumerpointedoutfiftyyearsago,ignoresthemoresystematicandstructuralformsofracism;itlooksforracismwithinindividualsandnotinstitutions.LabelingsomeonearacistŽshiftsourattentionfromthesocialsurroundingsthatenforceracialinequal-itiesandmiseriestotheindividualwithbiases.ItalsoletstheaccuserofftheMatthewDesmondandMustafaEmirbayerDUBOISREVIEW:SOCIALSCIENCERESEARCHONRACE6:2,2009 hook„Heisaracist;IamnotŽ„andtreatsracismasaberrantandstrange,whereasAmericanracismisrathernormal.Furthermore,intentionalityisinnowayapre-requisiteforracism.Racismisoftenhabitual,unintentional,commonplace,polite,implicit,andwellmeaningBrownetal.,2003.Thus,racismislocatednotonlyinourintentionalthoughtsandactions;italsothrivesinourunintentionalthoughtsandhabits,aswellasinthesocialinstitutionsinwhichweallareembeddedSilva1997;Feaginetal.,2001LegalisticFallacy.„Thisfallacyconflatesdejurelegalprogresswithdefactoracialprogress.Onewhooperatesunderthelegalisticfallacyassumesthatabolishingracistlawsracisminprincipleautomaticallyleadstotheabolitionofracismwritracisminpractice.Thisfallacywillbegintocrumbleafterafewmomentsofcriticalreflection.Afterall,wewouldnotmakethesamemistakewhenitcomestoothercriminalizedacts:Lawsagainsttheftdonotmeanthatonescarwillneverbestolen.Bywayoftangibleillustration,considerBrownv.BoardofEducationthelandmarkcasethatabolisheddejuresegregationinschools.Therulingdidnotleadtotheabolitionofdefactosegregation:fiftyyearslater,schoolsarestilldrasticallysegregatedanddrasticallyunequalNeckerman2007;Oaks2005.Infact,somesocialscientistshavedocumentedanationwidemovementofeducationalre-segregation,whichhaslefttodaysschoolsevenmoresegregatedthanthoseof1954seeEaton1994;Harris2006;Orfield1993TokenisticFallacy.„Oneguiltyofthetokenisticfallacyassumesthatthepresenceofpeopleofcolorininfluentialpositionsisevidenceoftheeradicationofracialobstacles.Althoughitistruethatnon-Whiteshavemadesignificantinroadstoseatsofpoliticalandeconomicpoweroverthecourseofthelastfiftyyears,adisproportionatenumberremaindisadvantagedinthesearenasAlexander2006;Patterson1997.Exceptionsdonotprovetherule.Wecannot,ingoodconscience,ignorethemillionsofAfricanAmericanslivinginpovertyand,instead,pointtoOprahWinfreysmillionsasevidenceforeconomicequality.Rather,wemustexplorehowWinfreysfinancialsuccesscancoexistwiththeeconomicdeprivationofmil-lionsofBlackwomen.Weneedtoexplore,inhistorianThomasHoltswords,howthesimultaneousidealizationofColinPowell,Žor,forthatmatter,BarackObama,anddemonizationofblacksasawhole...isreplicatedinmuchofoureveryday2000,p.6Besides,throughoutthehistoryofAmerica,onehasbeenabletofindatleastahandfulofnon-Whiteindividualswhoexcelledfinanciallyandpoliticallyintheteethoframpantracialdomination.ThefirstBlackcongressmanwasnotelectedaftertheCivilRightsMovementbutin1870.JosephRainey,aformerslave,servedfourtermsintheHouseofRepresentatives.MadameC.J.WalkerisaccreditedasbeingthefirstBlackmillionaire.Bornin1867,Walkermadeherfortuneinventinghairandbeautyproducts.FewpeoplewouldfeelcomfortablepointingtoRaineysandWalkerssuc-cessasevidencethatlatenineteenth-centuryAmericawasatimeofracialharmonyandequity.Suchtokenisticlogicwouldnotbeaccuratethen,anditisnotaccuratenow.AhistoricalFallacy.„Thisfallacyrendershistoryimpotent.Thinkinghin-deredbytheahistoricalfallacymakesaboldclaim:MostU.S.history„namely,theperiodoftimewhenthiscountrydidnotextendbasicrightstopeopleofcoloraloneclassifythemasfullyhuman„isinconsequentialtoday.Legaciesofslaveryandcolonialism,theeradicationofmillionsofNativeAmericans,forcedsegregation,clandestinesterilizationsandharmfulscienceexperiments,massdisenfranchisement,race-basedexploitation,racistpropagandadistributedbythestatecaricaturingAsians,Blacks,andHispanics,raciallymotivatedabusesofallkindssexual,murderous,and„allofthis,purportthoseoperatingundertheahistoricalfallacy,areWhatisRacialDomination?DUBOISREVIEW:SOCIALSCIENCERESEARCHONRACE6:2,2009 toofarremovedtomattertothoselivinginthehere-and-now.Thisideaissoerroneousitisdifficulttotakeseriously.Todayssocietyisdirected,constructed,andmoldedby„indeedgraftedonto„thepastNgai2004;Patterson1998;Winant.Andrace,aswehavealreadyseen,isahistoricalinvention.AsoftversionŽoftheahistoricalfallacymightadmitthateventsintherecentpastŽ„suchasthetimesincetheCivilRightsMovementortheattacksonSeptem-ber11„matterwhilethingsinthedistantpastŽ„suchasslaveryorthecolonizationofMexico„havelittleconsequence.Butthisideaisnolessfallaciousthanthehardversion,ŽsincemanyeventsinAmericasdistantpastŽ„especiallytheenslavementandmurderofmillionsofAfricans„aretheconsequentialinshapingpresent-daysociety.Inthisvein,considerthequestionFrenchhistorianMarcBlochposestous:ButwhowoulddaretosaythattheunderstandingoftheProtestantorCatholicReformation,severalcenturiesremoved,isnotfarmoreimportantforapropergraspoftheworldtodaythanagreatmanyothermovementsofthoughtorfeeling,whicharecertainlymorerecent,yetmoreephemeralŽ1953,p.41FixedFallacy.„Thosewhoassumethatracismisfixed„thatitisimmutable,constantacrosstimeandspace„partakeinthefixedfallacy.Sincetheytakeracismtobesomethingthatdoesnotdevelopatall,thosewhounderstandracismthroughthefixedfallacyareoftenledtoaskquestionssuchas:Hasracismincreasedordecreasedinthepastdecade?ŽAndbecausepractitionersofthefixedfallacyusuallytakeastheirstandarddefinitionofracismonlythemostheinousforms„racialviolence,forexample„theyconfidentlyconcludethat,indeed,thingshavegottenbetter.ItisimportantandusefultotracethecareerofAmericanracism,analyzing,forexample,howracialattitudesormeasuresofracialinclusionandexclusionhavechangedovertime,andmanysocialscientistshavedevelopedsophisticatedtech-niquesfordoingsoe.g.,Almaguer1994;Bobo2001;Patterson1998;Schumanetal.,1997.Butthequestion,Havethingsgottenbetterorworse?,Žislegitimateafterweaccountforthemorphingattributesofracism.Wecannotquantifyracismlikewecanquantify,say,birthrates.ThenatureofbirthrateŽdoesnotfluctuateovertime;thus,itmakessensetoask,Aretheremoreorlessbirthsnowthantherewerefiftyyearsago?Žwithoutbotheringtoanalyzeifandhowabirthrateisdifferenttodaythanitwasinprevioushistoricalmoments.Americanracism,ontheotherhand,assumesdifferentformsindifferenthistoricalmoments.Althoughracerelationstodayareinformedbythoseofthepast,wecannotholdtothebeliefthattwenty-first-centuryracismtakesontheexactsameformastwentieth-centuryracism.AndwecertainlycannotconcludethatthereislittleornoracismŽtodaybecauseitdoesnotresembletheracismofthe1950s.Modern-dayChristianitylooksverydifferent,innearlyeveryconceivableway,thantheChristianityoftheearlychurch.ButthisdoesnotmeanthatthereislittleornoChristianityŽtoday.So,beforeweask,Havethingsgottenbetterorworse?,Žweshouldpondertheessenceofracismtoday,notinghowitdiffersfromracismexperiencedbythoselivinginourparentsorgrandparentsgeneration.Andweshouldask,further,toquoteHoltagain,WhatenablesracismtoreproduceitselfafterthehistoricalconditionsthatinitiallygaveitlifehavedisappearedŽ2000,p.20RACIALDOMINATIONWehavespentasignificantamountoftimetalkingaboutwhatracialdominationisnotbuthaveyettospelloutwhatitis.Wecandelineatetwospecificmanifestationsofracialdomination:institutionalracismandinterpersonalracism.MatthewDesmondandMustafaEmirbayerDUBOISREVIEW:SOCIALSCIENCERESEARCHONRACE6:2,2009 issystemicWhitedominationofpeopleofcolor,embeddedandoperatingincorporations,universities,legalsystems,politicalbodies,culturallife,andothersocialcollectives.TheworddominationŽremindsusthatinstitutionalracismisatypeofpowerthatencompassesthesymbolicpowertoclassifyonegroupofpeopleasnormalŽandothergroupsofpeopleasabnormalŽ;thepoliticalpowertowithholdbasicrightsfrompeopleofcolorandmarshalthefullpowerofthestatetoenforcesegregationandinequality;thesocialpowertodenypeopleofcolorfullinclusionormembershipinassociationallife;andtheeconomicpowerthatprivilegesWhitesintermsofjobplacement,advancement,wealth,andpropertyaccumulation.Informedbycenturiesofracialdomination,institutionalracismwithholdsfrompeopleofcoloropportunities,privileges,andrightsthatmanyWhitesenjoy.Socialscientistshaveamassedasignificantamountofevidencedocumentinginstitutionalracism,evidencethatdemonstrateshowWhitepeople„strictlybecauseoftheirWhiteness„reapconsiderableadvantageswhenbuyingandsellingahouse,choos-inganeighborhoodinwhichtolive,gettingajobandmovingupthecorporateladder,securingafirst-classeducation,andseekingmedicalcareMassey2007;Quillian2006.ThatWhitesaccumulatemorepropertyandearnmoreincomethanmembersofminoritypopulations,possessimmeasurablymorepoliticalpower,andenjoygreateraccesstothecountryscultural,social,medical,legal,andeconomicresourcesarewelldocumentedfactse.g.,OliverandShapiro,1997;Pager2003;Western2006.WhileWhiteshaveaccumulatedmanyopportunitiesduetoracialdomination,peopleofcolorhavesufferedfromdisaccumulationBrownetal.,.Thus,ifwetalkaboutHispanicpoverty,ŽthenwemustalsotalkaboutWhiteaffluence;ifwespeakofBlackunemployment,ŽthenwemustalsokeepinmindWhiteemployment;andifweponderpublicpoliciesforpeopleofcolor,thenwemustalsocriticallyexaminethepublicpoliciesthatdirectlybenefitWhitepeople.Belowthelevelofinstitutions„yetdirectlyinformedbytheirworkings„weinterpersonalracism.Thisisracialdominationmanifestineverydayinteractionsandpractices.Interpersonalracismcanbeovert;however,mostofthetime,inter-personalracismisquitecovert:itisfoundinthehabitual,commonsensical,andordinarypracticesofourlives.Ourracistattitudes,asLillianSmithremarkedinKillersoftheDream,easilyslipfromtheconsciousminddeepintothemusclesŽ,p.96.Sincewearedisposedtoaworldstructuredbyracialdomina-tion,wedevelopracializeddispositions„someconscious,manymoreunconsciousandsomatic„thatguideourthoughtsandbehaviors.WemaytalkslowlytoanAsianwomanatthefarmersmarket,unconsciouslyassumingthatshespeakspoorEnglish;wemayinformaHispanicmanatacorporatepartythatsomeonehasspilledtheirpunch,unconsciouslyassumingthatheisajanitor;wemayasktochangeseatsifanArabAmericanmansitsnexttousonanairplane.Miniatureactionssuchasthesehavelittletodowithonesintentionalthoughts;theyareorchestratedbyonespracticalsense,oneshabitualknowhow,andinformedbyinstitutionalracism.ConflictbetweenRaciallyDominatedGroupsCanpeopleofcolorberacist?ŽThisquestionisapopularoneinthepublicimagination,andtheanswerdependsonwhatwemeanbyracism.InstitutionalracismistheproductofyearsofWhitesupremacy,anditisdesignedtoproducefar-reachingbenefitsforWhitepeople.Institutionalracismcarriesondespiteourpersonalattitudes.Thus,thereisnosuchthingasBlackinstitutionalracismŽorreverseinstitutionalracismŽsincethereexistsnocenturies-oldsociallyingrainedandnormalizedsystemofdominationdesignedbypeopleofcolorthatdeniesWhitesWhatisRacialDomination?DUBOISREVIEW:SOCIALSCIENCERESEARCHONRACE6:2,2009 fullparticipationintherights,privileges,andseatsofpowerofoursocietyetal.,2003.Interpersonalracism,ontheotherhand,takesplaceonthegroundlevelandhastodowithattitudesandhabitualactions.Itiscertainlytruethatmembersofallracialgroupscanharbornegativeattitudestowardmembersofothergroups.Indeed,somenon-Whitegroupshaveadeep,conflict-riddenhistorywithothernon-Whitegroups.Considerthetenserelationship,foundinmanyurbanareas,betweenKoreanimmigrantsandAfricanAmericans.Immigrantgroupshavealwaysfoundawaytoestablishabusinessintheinnercity.Throughoutthetwentiethcentury,Jewishshopkeeperswerearegularfixtureinthecenteroftown;butastheirchildreninherited,notjusttheopportunitiestheirparentshadworkedsohardtoprovide,butalsotheopportunitiesinvolvedinbeingwelcomeddeeperintotheranksofWhiteness,theytookleaveoftheirshopsandopenedupinturnnewopportunitiesforstreamsofotherethnicimmigrants.KoreanshavefilledthebusinessnicheleftbyJewishshopkeepers,andmanyhaveopenedupshopsintheBlackghettobecausetheycanaffordtolivethereandbecausetheydonothavetocompetewithlargecorporations,whicharemuchmoreinterestedinthedeeperpocketsofsuburbanLee2002;Waldinger1996SomeBlackghettoresidents,however,viewKoreanshopkeeperswithafairdegreeofanimusandresentment.AlthoughBlacksandimmigrantsusuallycompetefordifferentjobsBaker1999;McCall2001,manypoorBlacksfeelthatKoreanentrepreneurshavestymiedthegrowthofblackbusiness.ConflictsbetweenBlackpatronsandKoreanstoreownersregularlyarecoloredbyracistlanguage,witheachpartyexchangingepithetsKim2000;Lee2002.Black-Koreanconflictboiledoverintheearlynineteen-nineties.In1991,aKoreanmerchantshotandkilledaBlackteenagerinSouthCentralLosAngeles.Ayearlater,LosAngeleswentupinflamesasinsurgentsofallracialidentitiestooktothestreetsafterfourWhitepoliceofficers,whohadbeencaughtonvideotapebeatingRodneyKing,atwenty-five-year-oldmotorist,wereacquitted.Asthesmokesettledfromthecountrysfirstmultiethnicuprising,fifty-twohadbeenkilledandmillionsofdollarsworthofpropertyhadbeendestroyed.Koreanstoreownerswerehitthehardest,sufferingalmosthalfthetotalpropertydamage„roughly$400millionLee2002Black-Koreanconflict,aswellasotherantagonisticrelationsbetweenraciallydominatedgroups„includingtheso-calledBlack-Browndivide,bitterrelationsamongHispanicsubgroups,andanimusbetweenvariousAmericanIndianNations„remindushowracialdominationcanoccludeanddistort,howitcanhidetherealcausesofhumanmiseryunderfalseargumentsthatattributethosecausestocertaindominatedracialgroups.Insteadofexaminingprocessesofdisinvestmentanddeindustrializa-tionthathollowedoutthecityscore,ongoingmodesofcapitalistexploitationthatkeepplumptheunemploymentrolls,orAmericasskimpywelfarestateandtheretreatofstateinvolvementinpoorurbanareas,themindcloudedbyracialdomi-nationpreferstoblameimmigrantsorBlacks.Thedistrustandfearthatdifferentracialandethnicgroupslivinginpoorurbanneighborhoodsharbortowardsoneanotherismatchedonlybytheinterestsandstrugglessharedbythesegroups.Peopleofcolor,then,canhelptoreinforcetheWhitepowerstructurebylashingoutagainstothernon-Whitegroups.Thatsaid,wemustrealizethatinterpersonalracismtargetingdominatedgroupsandinterpersonalracismtargetingthedominantgroupdonotpackthesamepunch.Take,forexample,thefollowingscenario:Twoyoungmen,oneBlack,theotherWhite,bumpintoeachotheronthestreet.TheBlackmancallstheWhitemanahonky.ŽInresponse,theWhitemancallstheBlackmanaboy.ŽBothracialslursareracialslursandshouldbelabeledassuch,andbothreinforceracialdivisions.However,unlikehonky,ŽboyŽconnectstothelargerMatthewDesmondandMustafaEmirbayerDUBOISREVIEW:SOCIALSCIENCERESEARCHONRACE6:2,2009 systemofinstitutionalracialdomination.Thewordderivesitsmeaningandpowerfromslavery,whenenslavedAfricanmenwerestrippedoftheirmasculinehonorandtreatedlikechildren.BoyŽandmanyotherepithetsaimedatBlacksinvokessuchtimes„timeswhenmurdering,torturing,whipping,andrapingenslavedBlackswerenotillegalacts.EpithetstowardsWhitepeople,includinghonky,Žhavenosuchequivalent.BoyŽalsoremindstheBlackmanhowthingsstandtoday.Ifthecon-frontationescalatesandthepolicearecalled,theBlackmanknowsthatthepoliceofficerswillprobablybeWhiteandthathemightbeharassedorlookeduponasathreat;ifthetwomenmeetincourt,theBlackmanknowsthatthelawyers,judge,andjurorswillpossiblybemostlyifnotallWhite;andifthetwomenaresen-tenced,theAfricanAmericanmanknows„asdomanycriminologistse.g.,Tonry„thathewillgettheharshersentence.BoyŽbringsthefullweightofinsti-tutionalracism„systematic,historical,mighty„downupontheBlackman.Honky,Ževenifdeliveredwithvenomousspite,ispowerlessbycomparison.Moreover,sociologistshaveshownthat,unlikeWhitepeople,peopleofcolorareconfrontedwithinterpersonalracismonaregularbasis,sometimesdaily.Forpeopleofcolor,thereisacumulativecharactertoanindividualsracialexperiences.Humiliatingordegradingactsalwaysareinformedbysimilaractsthatindividualshaveexperiencedinthepast.ToparaphraseJoeFeagin,theinterpersonaleventsthattakeplaceonthestreetandinotherpublicsettingsarenotsimplyrareandisolatedevents;rather,theyarerecurringeventsshapedbyhistoricalandsocialforcesofracialdomination.SymbolicViolenceBecauseracisminfusesallofsociallife,peopleofcolorandWhitesalikedevelopthoughtsandpracticesmoldedbyracism;peopleofcolorandWhitesalikedevelopstereotypesaboutotherracialgroups.Peopleofcolorofteninternalizeprejudiceaimedattheirownracialgroup,unintentionallycontributingtothereproductionofracialdomination.Psychologistshavelabeledthisphenomenoninternalizedoppres-sionŽorinternalizedracismŽFanon1967.FollowingtheworkofPierreBourdieu,welabelitsymbolicviolenceŽ:violencewhichisexerciseduponasocialagentwithhisorhercomplicityBourdieuandWacquant,1992,p.167.Inthecaseofracialdomina-tion,symbolicviolencereferstotheprocessofpeopleofcolorunknowinglyaccept-ingandsupportingthetermsoftheirowndomination,therebyactingasagentswhocolludeintheconditionsfromwhichtheysuffer.Sowelearnedthedancethatcripplesthehumanspirit,ŽlamentsSmith,stepbystepbystep,wewhowerehiteandwewhowerecolored,daybyday,hourbyhour,yearbyyearuntilthemovementswerereflexesandmadefortherestofourlifewithoutthinkingŽ,p.96AgoodexampleofsymbolicviolenceisthenearlyworldwideacceptanceofEuropeanstandardsofbeauty.ThefalseaestheticseparationbetweenWhitebeautyŽ„epitomizedbylong,straight,blondehair,blueeyes,andpaleskin„andBlackuglinessŽ„epitomizedbyshort,curly,blackhair,browneyes,anddarkbrownskin„grewoutofslavery.FeaturesassociatedwiththeAfricanAmericanphenotypeweredemonized.SincetheBlackisBeautifulŽmovementofthe1960s,manyAfricanAmericanwomenhaveresistedsuchstandards,takingprideintheircurlyhairandtheirebony-coloredskin.Nevertheless,manyothershaveinternalizedWhitestandardsofbeauty.Assuch,theyusecostlyandpainfulmethodstostraightenanddyetheirhairand,lessfrequently,tolightentheirskin.Infact,MadameC.J.Walker,thefirstBlackmillionairementionedabove,madeherfortunedevelopingaWhatisRacialDomination?DUBOISREVIEW:SOCIALSCIENCERESEARCHONRACE6:2,2009 producttostraightenBlackwomenshair!Today,manyBlackwomenandothermembersofdominatedraces,toborrowSartresline,havebeenpoisonedbythestereotypeothershaveofthemŽ,p.95Symbolicviolenceoperatesbyvirtueofthefactthatthedominatedperceiveandrespondtothestructuresandprocessesthatdominatethemthroughmodesofthought„and,indeed,alsooffeeling„whicharethemselvestheproductofdomi-nation.TheorderofthingsŽcomestoseemtothemnatural,self-evident,andlegitimate.Suchaninsightneithergrantseverythingtostructuralcausationnorblamesthehaplessvictim.heonlywaytounderstandthisparticularformofdominationistomovebeyondtheforcedchoicebetweenconstraintbyforcestoreasons,betweenmechanicalcoercionandvoluntary,free,deliberate,evencalculatedsubmission.Theeffectofsymbolicdomination...isexertednotinthepurelogicofknowingconsciousnessesbutthroughtheschemesofperception,appreciation,andactionthatareconstitutiveofhabitusandwhich,belowthelevelofthedecisionsofconsciousnessandthecontrolsofthewill,setupacognitiverela-tionshipthatisprofoundlyobscuretoitselfŽBourdieu2001,p.37.Thisinturnhasanimportantpracticalimplication.Whatisrequiredisaradicaltransfor-mationofthesocialconditionsthatproduceembodiedhabits,dispositions,tastes,andlifestylesthatleadpeopletobecomeactivelycomplicitintheirowndomination.Theonlywaytobringaboutchangethatdoesnotentailmerelyreplacingonemodalityofracialdominationwithanotheristoundothemechanismsofdehistori-cizationanduniversalization„alwaysandeverywhereithasbeenthiswayŽ„throughwhicharbitraryworkingsofpowerareenabledtocontinue.IntersectingModesofDominationRacialdominationdoesnotoperateinsideavacuum,cordonedofffromothermodesofdomination.Onthecontrary,itwithotherformsofdomination„thosebasedongender,class,sexuality,religion,nationhood,ability,andsoforth.ThenotionthatthereisamonolithicArabAmericanexperience,ŽAsianAmericanexperience,ŽorWhiteexperienceŽ„experiencessomehowdetachedfromotherpiecesofonesidentity„isnothingbutachimera.Researchershavelabeledsuchanotionracialessentialism,ŽforsuchawayofthinkingboilsdownvastlydifferenthumanexperiencesintoasinglemastercategoryŽ:raceHarris2000.Whenwefailtoaccountforthesedifferentexperiences,wecreatesilencesinournarrativesofthesocialworldandfailtoexplainhowoverlappingsystemsofadvantageanddisadvan-tageaffectindividualsopportunitystructures,lifestyles,andsocialhardships.TheideaofintersectionalityimpliesthatwecannotunderstandthelivesofpoorWhitesinglemothersorgayBlackmenbyexaminingonlyonedimensionoftheirlives„class,gender,race,orsexuality.Indeed,wemustexploretheirlivesintheirfullcomplexity,examininghowthesevariousdimensionscometogetherandstructuretheirexistence.Whenwespeakofracialdomination,then,wemustalwaysbearinmindthewaysinwhichitinteractswithmasculinedominationorsexism,hetero-sexualdominationorhomophobia,classdomination,religiouspersecu-tion,disadvantagesbroughtonbydisabilities,andsoforthCollins2000;Crenshaw1990;Mohanty2003Inaddition,weshouldnotassumethatonekindofoppressionismoreimportantthananotherorthatbeingadvantagedinonedimensionoflifesomehowcancelsoutotherdimensionsthatoftenresultindisadvantage.WhileitistruethatpoorWhitesexperiencemanyofthesamehardshipsaspoorBlacks,itisnottruethatpovertysomehowde-WhitenspoorWhites.Inotherwords,thoughtheyareinasimilarlyMatthewDesmondandMustafaEmirbayerDUBOISREVIEW:SOCIALSCIENCERESEARCHONRACE6:2,2009 precariouseconomicpositionaspoorBlacks,poorWhitesstillexperiencerace-basedprivileges,whilepoorBlacksareoppressednotonlybypovertybutalsobyracism.Inasimilarvein,well-offpeopleofcolorcannotbuyŽtheirwayoutofracism.Despitetheireconomicprivilege,middle-andupper-classnon-Whitesexperienceinstitu-tionalandinterpersonalracismonaregularbasisFeagin1991.Buthow,exactly,shouldweconceptualizetheseintersectingmodesofdomination?Manyscholarshavegrappledwiththisquestione.g.,McCall2005;Walby2007;Yuval-Davis2006andwedosohere,ifonlyinthemostprovisionalway.Thenotionofintersectionalityisperhapsasoldasthesocialproblemsofracial,masculine,andclassdomination,butinrecentmemoryitwaspopularizedbyactiv-istswhocriticizedthefeministandcivilrightsmovementsforignoringtheuniquestrugglesofwomenofcolor.ThetermitselfiscreditedtocriticalracescholarKimberléCrenshaw,whoimaginedsocietyasdividedeverywhichwaybymultipleformsofinequality.ForCrenshaw,societyresembledanintricatesystemofcrisscrossingroads„eachonerepresentingadifferentsocialidentitye.g.,race,gender,class,religion,age;onesuniquesocialpositionorstructurallocationbeidentifiedbylistingalltheattributesofonessocialidentityandpinpointingtheorintersectionatwhichallthoseattributescoalesced.Thisconceptionofintersectionalityhasbeenthedominantoneformanyyears,leadingscholarstounderstandoverlappingmodesofoppressionasakindofmatrixofdominationŽCollins2000Recently,however,scholarshavecriticizedthiswayofthinkingaboutintersec-tionality,claimingthatitreproduces,inminimizedform,theveryessentialistrea-soningitsoughttodismantleseeFerree2009;McCall2005.Forexample,thosewhohaveconcentratedonthewaysthatclassintersectswithraceŽlargelyhavebifurcatedracialgroupsespeciallyAfricanAmericansintotwoclasses„themiddleclassandthepoorortheunderclassŽ„attributingtoeachcertainsocialcharac-teristics,principles,andpracticese.g.,Jencks1992;MasseyandDenton,1993;Wilson1978.Thus,insteadofBlackculture,wenowhavetwodistinctBlackcultures;insteadoftheBlackcommunity,wethinkintermsofsubcommunities.Whenscholarsdivideracialgroupsintoasetnumberofclasses,genders,sexualities,andsoforth,theendresultisnotacritiqueofessentialismbutanew,softerkindofessentialism,resultinginamultichromemosaicofmonochromeracial,ethnic,orculturalblocsŽBrubakeretal.,2004,p.45.Atbest,amodelthatrepresentssocietyasahierarchyofculturallydiscreteboxes„dividedbyvectorsofsocialidentity„encouragesustoconceptualizeoppressionthroughasimpleadditivemodeloftenhearsofadoublejeopardyŽortripleoppressionŽ;atworst,itreplaceslargerhomogenizingrubricswithsmalleronesHispanicwomenŽofferslittleconceptualrefugefromreductionistandreifyingtendencies.WebelieveamoreanalyticallysophisticatedandpoliticallyusefulrenderingofintertwinedoppressionsisMyraMarxFerreesmodelofinteractiveintersectional-cf.Prins2006;Walby2007.Inthisversion,overlappingsocialidentitiesarebestunderstood,notasacollectionofpointsofintersection,ŽbutasafigurationŽasEliaswouldhaveitorfieldŽasBourdieuwouldofshifting,deeply-dimensioned,andmutuallyconstitutedrelationships.ŽThismeanstheintersectionofgenderandraceisnotanynumberofspecificoccupiedbyindividualsorsuchasBlackwomenbutathroughwhichracetakesonmultiplegenderedmeaningsforparticularwomenandmen....Insuchacomplexsystem,genderisnotadimensionlimitedtotheorganizationofreproductionorfamily,classisnotadimensionequatedwiththeeconomy,andraceisnotacategoryreducedtotheprimacyofethnicities,nationsandborders,butalloftheprocessesthatsystem-WhatisRacialDomination?DUBOISREVIEW:SOCIALSCIENCERESEARCHONRACE6:2,2009 aticallyorganizefamilies,economies,andnationsareco-constructedalongwiththemeaningsofgender,race,andclassthatarepresentedinandreinforcedbytheseinstitutionsseparatelyandtogetherŽFerree2009,p.85Thebestmetaphorforintersectingmodesofoppression,therefore,maynotbethatofcrisscrossingroadsbutofaweborfieldofrelationswithinwhichstrugglesoveropportunities,power,andprivilegestakeplacecf.Bourdieu1996Emirbayer1997.Theimplicationofthisnewtheoreticaldevelopmentisthatifwefocusstrictlyonraceandignoreothersourcesofsocialinequalitysuchasclassand,notonlywillwebedeaftotheuniqueexperiencesofcertainmembersofsociety„theirvoicesdrownedoutbyourviolentandhomogenizingcategorization„butwewillalsoandalwaysfundamentallymisunderstandourobjectofanalysis:raceitself.Intersectionalanalysisofthetypethatbreakswitholdmodesofthinkinge.g.,societyasamatrixofdominationŽandadoptsathoroughlyrelationalper-spectiveonmultiplemodesofoppressione.g.,interactiveintersectionalityŽisnotanoptionbutaprerequisiteforfullyunderstandingthenatureofracialidentityandracialdomination.Theaimofthispaperwastoadvanceasocioanalysisofracialdominationinembryonicform,introducingstudentstotheanalyticalbuildingblocksofasociologyofraceandethnicity.Westrovetoconsolidate„inasingleessay„insightsfromdiversebodiesofscholarship,criticallyinterrogatingseveralideasalongtheway.Insodoing,weunder-scoredasharedsetofdefinitionsandconceptsandemphasizedeffectiveanddissectedwaysofthinkingaboutracialdomination.Racismcanbeslippery,elusivetoobservationandanalysis.Twenty-firstcenturypatternsofracialstigmatization,exclu-sion,andrepression„aswellaspromisesofracialreconciliationandmulticulturalcoalitions„donotimmediatelyresemblethoseofthetwentiethcentury.Likeareces-sivetumor,twenty-first-centuryracismhasdisguiseditself,callingitselfbyothernamesandcloakingitselfbehindseeminglyrace-neutralŽlaws,policies,practices,andlan-guage.Asstudentsofsociety„andascitizensofaworldthatgrowsmoreraciallydiverseeveryyear„wemustworktorenderapparentthispervasive,corrosive,anddehuman-izingformofdominationthatinfectsthehealthofoursociety.Wemustunderstandhowraceworks,developingtoolstoanalyzethiswell-foundedfictionresponsibleforsomanycleavagesandinequalitiesinourworldtoday.Thisarticlehasattemptedtolaythegroundworknecessarytodojustthat. Correspondingauthor:MatthewDesmond,DepartmentofSociology,UniversityofWisconsin—Madison,8128WilliamH.SewellSocialSciencesBuilding,1180ObservatoryDrive,Madison,WI53706-1393.Email:mdesmond@ssc.wisc.edu1.Racescholarsmuststrivetoconstructtheirownobjectofinquiryratherthanallowingthatobjecttobepre-constructedforthem,asitwere,bytaken-for-grantedandcom-monsenseunderstandingsorfolkknowledgeBanton1979.AsDurkheime.g.,1982oftenstressed,craftingascientificdefinitionisamongthemosteffectivewaystoexerciseepistemologicalvigilance.Wepresentourownprovisionaldefinitionofraceheretobreakwithcommonsenseimpressionsofthetermand,byunpackingitoneelementatatime,toarriveatasocial-scientificallyŽsoundunderstandingofrace.Byemphasizingtheprocessofmisrecognitionornaturalization,ourdefinitiondiffersfromothers,whichtendtoacceptasgiventheexistenceofnaturalphysicaldifferencesMatthewDesmondandMustafaEmirbayerDUBOISREVIEW:SOCIALSCIENCERESEARCHONRACE6:2,2009 thatare,throughtheprocessofracialization,ascribedsocialimportanceormeaning.SinceWeber,sociologistshavedefinedraceasaformofsocialclassificationbasedonobviousphysicaldifferencesŽ,p.385;e.g.,Schaefer2006,p.7ordiffer-enttypesofhumanbodiesŽOmiandWinant,1994,p.55.Inmanyonemightsaycases,theseconditionshold„whatbecomesknownasaraceŽisagroupsetapartthroughsocialclassification,practice,andcustombyskintone,hairtype,smell,orsomeotherphysicaldifference„buttheyproveinsufficientinanon-insignificantnumberofothercontexts,wheretheprocessofracializationreliesonasetofnon-obvious,orevennon-existent,physicalattributesasinthecaseofJapansBurakaminorevenlight-skinnedAfricanAmericansorNativeAmericans.Bantonwascorrectwhenhesaidthatpeopledonotperceiveracialdifferences...phenotypicaldifferencesofcolour,hairform,underlyingbonestructureandsoonŽ1979,p.130.Butwecangofurtherstill,acknowledgingthatprocessesofracializationactuallycandemarcatedifferencewherepreviouslynophenotypicdifferenceevenatthelevelofmelanincountInallcases,theprocessofracializationreliesontheprocessofmisrecognition,wherebyasocialcreationismistakenforanaturalphenomenon,eitherinhardformaswithscientificracismortheearlyhumantaxonomiesorinsoftermanifestationsaswithstereotypicalcommentsattributingtocertainracialgroupsacollectionofattributes,positiveornegative,asifthoseattributesweregeneticallyinherited2.Emphatically,thisdoesnotmeanthatrefusingtorecognizeracialgroupsthatwerecreatedthroughcenturiesofoppression,colonialism,politicaldiscourse,andscientificmanipulationwillsomehowleadthoseracesandracialinequalitytomagicallydisap-pear.Theprocessofracialmisrecognitionisfoundbothatthestructuralandindividuallevelsand,mostimportant,isahistoricalprocess.Itfollows,then,thatthepracticeofrefusingtorecognizethemisrecognition,aswithFrancesaversiontoacknowledgingracialcategoriesortheprematurelycelebratorydeclarationofacolor-blindŽorracefreeŽAmericausuallyassociatedwithneoconservativepolitics,isanineffectiveandwrongheadedresponsetoaworlditselfnotcolor-blind.Inmanycases,therefusaltorecognizerace„awell-foundedfiction„onlyexacerbatesracialinequalitiesbyrender-ingantiracistprogramsimpossible.3.Forcritiquesofethnicity-,nation-,andclass-orientedtheoriesofrace,seeOmiandWinant4.Recently,anenergeticandconstructivedebatehasemergedoverthehistoricalconstruc-tionofWhitenessinAmerica,itsgenesis,development,andboundaries.WhilesomehistorianshavearguedthatcertainEuropeanimmigrantsinitiallywerenotconsideredWhitebuteventuallycametobeincludedunderthisprivilegedrubric,othershavesuggestedthattheseimmigrantswerehiteonarrivalŽseeArnesen2001;Guglielmo2004;Roediger19915.AmericanstendtofocusonethnicdifferenceswithintheWhiterace,whiletreatingBlacks,Latinos,andAsianAmericansasiftheyhadnoethnicityandasiftherewerenoculturalorhistoricaldifferencesbetweenforAfricanAmericansHaitians,Jamaicans,Ethiopians,Trinidadians,Angolans,orNigerians,orbetweenforLatinosPuertoRicans,Cubans,Mexicans,Peruvians,orDominicans,orbetweenforAsianAmericansIndonesians,Cambodians,Vietnamese,Chinese,andJapanesepeopleWaters19996.Althoughethnicaffiliationsareofteninformedbynationalaffiliations,ethnicityalsocantranscendnationalborders.Jewishethnicaffiliationencompassesawidevarietyofpeo-plewhovaryintermsofnationality,politicalcommitments,languages,andreligiousbeliefsandpractices.Despitethesedifferences„whichcutacrossnationalandreligiousboundaries„manyJewsseethemselvesasboundtogetherinagroup,sharingacommonhistory,culture,andethnicidentity.7.Foranextendeddiscussion,seeDesmondandEmirbayer8.Thisiswhysomescholarshaveobservedthat,initspopularusage,thetermHispanicŽisdeployedmuchmoreoftenasaracial,notethnic,classification,whileHispanicsub-categories,ŽsuchasMexicanŽorCuban,ŽaretreatedlikeethnicmarkersHirschmanetal.,20009.Today,manyforeign-bornresidentsstillfacegreatbarrierswhenapplyingforU.S.citizenship.WhenwecompareU.S.naturalizationrateswiththoseofCanada,wenoticethatthelatterarehigherthantheformer:overthepastthreedecades,Canadahasawardedmostofitsforeign-bornpopulationcitizenship,whiletheU.S.hasnotnaturalizedthemajorityofitsforeign-bornpopulationBloemraad2006;seealsoJoppkeWhatisRacialDomination?DUBOISREVIEW:SOCIALSCIENCERESEARCHONRACE6:2,2009 10.WeeschewthemisleadingantinomyofracismŽandprejudiceŽ„or,inthewordsof,structureŽandideologyŽ„sincethelattertermisonlyanexten-sionandmanifestationoftheformer;prejudiceisinnowayqualitativelydistinctfromracismandshouldnotbeportrayedassuch.11.Atthesametime,however,weshouldnotassumethatnon-WhitegainautomaticallynecessitatesWhiteloss,orviceversa,forracialdominationdoesnotfunctionundersuchzero-sumconditions.Morerealisticisthenotionthatracismlegitimatesthesquander-inganddissipationofanimportantofsocietalresourcesandhumantalentsŽFeaginetal.,2001,p.712.Foranethnographicaccountofsymbolicviolenceamongmigrantworkers,seeHolmesAlba,Richard,RubénRumbaut,andKarenMarotz.ADistortedNation:PerceptionsofRacialEthnicGroupSizesandAttitudesTowardImmigrantsandOtherMinorities.SocialForces,84:901…919.Alexander,JeffreyTheCivilSphere.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.Almaguer,TomásRacialFaultLines:TheHistoricalOriginsofWhiteSupremacyinCalifornia.Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.Arnesen,Eric.WhitenessandtheHistoriansImagination.InternationalLaborandWork-ClassHistory,60:3…32.Baker,SusanGonzalez.Mexican-OriginWomeninSouthwesternLaborMarkets.InIreneBrowneLatinasandAfricanAmericanWomenatWork,pp.244…269.NewYork:RussellSageFoundation.Banton,Michael.AnalyticalandFolkConceptsofRaceandEthnicity.EthnicandRacial,2:127…138.Bloch,MarcTheHistoriansCraft.TranslatedbyPeterPutnam.NewYork:Vintage.Bloemraad,IreneBecomingaCitizen:IncorporatingImmigrantsandRefugeesintheUnitedStatesandCanada.Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.Blumer,Herbert.RacePrejudiceasaSenseofGroupPosition.ThePacificSociological,1:3…7.Bobo,Lawrence.RacialAttitudesandRelationsattheCloseoftheTwentiethCentury.InNeilSmelser,WilliamJuliusWilson,andFaithMitchellAmericaBecoming:RacialTrendsandtheirConsequences,pp.262…299.Washington,DC:NationalAcademyPress.Bobo,Lawrence,andCybelleFox.Race,Racism,andDiscrimination:BridgingProb-lems,Methods,andTheoryinSocialPsychologicalResearch.SocialPsychologyQuarterly66:319…332.Bonilla-Silva,Eduardo.RethinkingRacism:TowardaStructuralInterpretation.Amer-icanSociologicalReview,62:465…480.Bourdieu,PierreLanguageandSymbolicPower.TranslatedbyGinoRaymondandMatthewAdamson.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.Bourdieu,PierreMasculineDomination.TranslatedbyRichardNice.Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress.Bourdieu,Pierre.RethinkingtheState:GenesisandStructureoftheBureau-craticField.TranslatedbyLoïcWacquantandSamarFarage.InPierreBourdieuPracticalReason,pp.35…63.Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress.Bourdieu,PierreTheRulesofArt:GenesisandStructureoftheLiteraryFieldTranslatedbySusanEmanuel.Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress.Bourdieu,Pierre,andLoïcWacquantAnInvitationtoReflexiveSociology.Chicago,IL:UniversityofChicagoPress.Brown,Michael,MartinCarnoy,ElliottCurrie,TroyDuster,DavidOppenheimer,MarjorieShultz,andDavidWellmanWhite-WashingRace:TheMythofaColorBlindSocietyBerkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.Brubaker,Rogers,andFrederickCooper.BeyondIdentity.ŽTheoryandSociety,29:Brubaker,Rogers,MaraLoveman,andPeterStamatov.EthnicityasCognition.TheoryandSociety,33:31…64.Collins,PatriciaHillBlackFeministThought:Knowledge,Consciousness,andthePoliticsofEmpowerment,2ed.NewYork:Routledge.MatthewDesmondandMustafaEmirbayerDUBOISREVIEW:SOCIALSCIENCERESEARCHONRACE6:2,2009 Conley,Dalton.UniversalFreckle,orHowILearnedtoBeWhite.InBirgitBranderRasmussen,EricKlinenberg,IreneNexica,andMattWrayTheMakingandUnmak-ingofWhiteness,pp.25…42.Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress.Cox,OliverCromwellCaste,Class,andRace:AStudyinSocialDynamics.GardenCity,NY:Doubleday.Crenshaw,Kimberlé.DemarginalizingtheIntersectionofRaceandSex:ABlackFeministCritiqueofAntidiscriminationDoctrine,FeministTheoryandAntiracistPolitics.UniversityofChicagoLegalForum,1989:139…167.Crenshaw,Kimberlé.MappingtheMargins:Intersectionality,IdentityPolitics,andViolenceagainstWomenofColor.StanfordLawReview,42:1241…1299.DaCosta,KimberlyMakingMultiracials:State,Family,andMarketintheRedrawingoftheColorLine.Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress.Davis,F.JamesWhoisBlack?OneNationsDefinition.UniversityPark,PA:Pennsylva-niaStateUniversityPress.Desmond,Matthew,andMustafaEmirbayerRacialDomination,RacialProgress:TheSociologyofRaceinAmerica.NewYork:McGraw-Hill.Dikötter,FrankTheDiscourseofRaceinModernChina.Stanford,CA:StanfordUniver-sityPress.Durkheim,ÉmileTheRulesofSociologicalMethodandSelectedTextsonSociologyanditsMethod.NewYork:FreePress.Duster,Troy.BuriedAlive:TheConceptofRaceinScience.InAlanGoodman,DeborahHeath,andSusanLindeeGeneticNature/Culture:AnthropologyandSciencebeyondtheTwo-CultureDivide,pp.258…277.Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.Duster,Troy.TheMorphingŽPropertiesofWhiteness.InBirgitBranderRasmussen,EricKlinenberg,IreneNexica,andMattWrayTheMakingandUnmakingofWhite-,pp.113…137.Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress.Eaton,Susan.TheNewSegregation:FortyYearsafterBrown,CitiesandSuburbsFaceaRisingTideofRacialIsolation.HarvardEducationLetter:1…15.Eisenstadt,S.NJapaneseCivilization:AComparativeView.Chicago,IL:UniversityofChicagoPress.Emirbayer,Mustafa.ManifestoforRelationalSociology.AmericanJournalofSociology103:281…317.Essed,PhilomenaEverydayRacism.Claremont,CA:HunterHouse.Fanon,FrantzBlackSkin,WhiteMasks.TranslatedbyCharlesLamMarkmann.NewYork:GrovePress.Feagin,Joe.TheContinuingSignificanceofRace:AntiblackDiscriminationinPublicAmericanSociologicalReview,56:101…116.Feagin,Joe,HernanVera,andPinarBaturWhiteRacism:TheBasics,SecondEdition.NewYork:Routledge.Ferree,MyraMarx.Inequality,IntersectionalityandthePoliticsofDiscourse:FramingFeministAlliances.InEmanuelaLombardo,PetraMeier,andMiekeVerlooDiscursivePoliticsofGenderEquality:Stretching,Bending,andPolicy-Making,pp.84…101.NewYork:Routledge.Frankenberg,RuthWhiteWomen,RaceMatters:TheSocialConstructionofWhitenessMinneapolis,MN:UniversityofMinnesotaPress.Gossett,ThomasRace:TheHistoryofanIdeainAmerica.NewYork:Schocken.Graves,Joseph,Jr.TheEmperorsNewClothes:BiologicalTheoriesofRaceattheMillen-.NewBrunswick,NJ:RutgersUniversityPress.Guglielmo,ThomasWhiteonArrival:Italians,Race,Color,andPowerinChicago,.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.Hall,Stuart.RaceArticulationandSocietiesStructuredinDominance.InUNESCOSociologicalTheories:RaceandColonialism,pp.305…345.Paris,FR:UNESCO.Haney-López,IanWhitebyLaw:TheLegalConstructionofRace.NewYork:NewYorkUniversityPress.Hannaford,IvanRace:TheHistoryofanIdeaintheWest.Baltimore,MD:TheJohnsHopkinsPress.Harper,Shannon,andBarbaraReskin.AffirmativeActionatSchoolandontheJob.AnnualReviewofSociology,31:357…379.Harris,Angela.RaceandEssentialisminFeministLegalTheory.InRichardDelgadoandJeanStefancicCriticalRaceTheory:TheCuttingEdge,SecondEdition,pp.261…274.Philadelphia,PA:TempleUniversityPress.WhatisRacialDomination?DUBOISREVIEW:SOCIALSCIENCERESEARCHONRACE6:2,2009 Harris,DouglasLostLearning,ForgottenPromises:ANationalAnalysisofSchoolRacialSegregation,StudentAchievement,andControlledChoiceŽPlans.Washington,DC:CenterforAmericanProgress.Hartigan,John,Jr.RacialSituations:ClassPredicamentsofWhitenessinDetroit.Prince-ton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress.Hirschman,Charles,RichardAlba,andReynoldsFarley.TheMeaningandMeasure-mentofRaceintheU.S.Census:GlimpsesintotheFuture.,37:381…393.Holmes,Seth.OaxacansLiketoWorkBentOverŽ:TheNaturalizationofSocialSufferingamongBerryFarmWorkers.InternationalMigration,45:39…68.Holt,ThomasTheProblemofRaceinthe21Century.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.Jackson,John,Jr.Harlemworld:DoingRaceandClassinContemporaryBlackAmericaChicago,IL:UniversityofChicagoPress.Jencks,ChristopherRethinkingSocialPolicy:Race,Poverty,andtheUnderclass.Cam-bridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.Johnson,E.PatrickAppropriatingBlackness:PerformanceandthePoliticsofAuthenticityDurham,NC:DukeUniversityPress.Joppke,ChristianImmigrationandtheNation-State:TheUnitedStates,Germany,andGreatBritain.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.Kim,ClaireJeanBitterFruit:ThePoliticsofBlack-KoreanConflictinNewYorkCity.NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress.Lee,JenniferCivilityintheCity:Blacks,Jews,andKoreansinUrbanAmerica.Cam-bridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.Lewis,Amanda.WhatGroup?ŽStudyingWhitesandWhitenessintheEraofColor-SociologicalTheory,22:623…646.Loury,GlennTheAnatomyofRacialInequality.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityLoveman,Mara.IsRaceŽEssential?AmericanSociologicalReview,64:891…898.Marx,AnthonyMakingRaceandNation:AComparisonoftheUnitedStates,SouthAfrica,andBrazil.NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress.Massey,DouglasCategoricallyUnequal:TheAmericanStratificationSystem.NewYork:RussellSageFoundation.Massey,Douglas,andNancyDentonAmericanApartheid:SegregationandtheMakingoftheUnderclass.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.McCall,Leslie.TheComplexityofIntersectionality.Signs:JournalofWomeninCultureandSociety,30:1771…1800.McCall,Leslie.SourcesofRacialWageInequalityinMetropolitanLaborMarkets:Racial,Ethnic,andGenderDifferences.AmericanSociologicalReview,66:520…541.Mohanty,ChandraFeminismwithoutBorders:DecolonizingTheory,PracticingSolidarityDurham,NC:DukeUniversityPress.Morrison,ToniPlayingintheDark:WhitenessandtheLiteraryImagination.NewYork:Vintage.Nadeau,Richard,RichardNiemi,andJeffreyLevine.InnumeracyaboutMinorityPublicOpinionQuarterly,57:332…347.Neckerman,KathrynSchoolsBetrayed:RootsofFailureinInner-CityEducation.Chicago,IL:UniversityofChicagoPress.Ngai,MaeImpossibleSubjects:IllegalAliensandtheMakingofModernAmerica.Prince-ton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress.Oaks,JeannieKeepingTrack:HowSchoolsStructureInequality,SecondEdition.NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress.Oliver,Melvin,andThomasShapiroBlackWealth/WhiteWealth.NewYork:Routledge.Omi,Michael,andHowardWinantRacialFormationintheUnitedStates:Fromthe1960stothe1990s,2ed.NewYork:Routledge.Orfield,GaryTheGrowthofSegregationinAmericanSchools:ChangingPatternsofSeparationandPovertySince1968.Washington,DC:NationalSchoolBoardsAssociation.Pager,Devah.TheMarkofaCriminalRecord.AmericanJournalofSociology,108:Patterson,OrlandoRitualsofBlood:ConsequencesofSlaveryinTwoAmericanCenturiesNewYork:BasicCivitas.Patterson,OrlandoTheOrdealofIntegration:ProgressandResentmentinAmericasRacialŽCrisis.Washington,DC:CivitasCounterpoint.MatthewDesmondandMustafaEmirbayerDUBOISREVIEW:SOCIALSCIENCERESEARCHONRACE6:2,2009 Prins,Baukje.NarrativeAccountsofOrigins:ABlindSpotintheIntersectionalEuropeanJournalofWomensStudies,13:277…290.Quillian,Lincoln.NewApproachestoUnderstandingRacialPrejudiceandDiscrimi-AnnualReviewofSociology,32:299…328.Reich,MichaelRacialInequality:APolitical-EconomicAnalysis.Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress.Reskin,BarbaraTheRealitiesofAffirmativeAction.Washington,DC:AmericanSocio-logicalAssociation.Roediger,DavidTheWagesofWhiteness:RaceandtheMakingoftheAmericanWorking.London,U.K.:Verso.Sartre,Jean-PaulAnti-SemiteandJew.TranslatedbyGeorgeBecker.NewYork:GrovePress.Schaefer,RichardRacialandEthnicGroups,TenthEdition.UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:Pearson,PrenticeHall.Schuman,Howard,CharlotteSteeh,LawrenceBobo,andMariaKrysanRacialAtti-tudesinAmerica:TrendsandInterpretations,revisededition.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUni-versityPress.Searle-Chatterjee,Mary,andUrsulaSharmaContextualisingCaste:Post-Dumontian.Oxford,U.K.:Blackwell.Sears,David,JamesSidanius,andLawrenceBobo.RacializedPolitics:TheDebateaboutRacisminAmerica.Chicago,IL:UniversityofChicagoPress.Sheriff,RobinDreamingEquality:Color,Race,andRacisminUrbanBrazil.NewBruns-wick,NJ:RutgersUniversityPress.Shklar,JudithAmericanCitizenship:TheQuestforInclusion.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.Smedley,AudreyRaceinNorthAmerica:OriginandEvolutionofaWorldview,SecondEdition.Boulder,CO:Westview.Smith,LillianKillersoftheDream,1994edition.NewYork:Norton.SouthernPovertyLawCenterIntelligenceProjectActiveU.S.HateGroupsin2005Montgomery,AL:SouthernPovertyLawCenter.Sparks,AllisterTheMindofSouthAfrica:TheStoryoftheRiseandFallofApartheidJohannesburg,ZA:JonathanBall.Stephens,ThomasDictionaryofLatinAmericanRacialandEthnicTerminology.Gaines-ville,FL:UniversityofFloridaPress.Telles,EdwardRaceinAnotherAmerica:TheSignificanceofSkinColorinBrazil.Prince-ton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress.Tonry,MichaelMalignNeglect:Race,Crime,andPunishmentinAmerica.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.Wacquant,Loïc.ForanAnalyticofRacialDomination.PoliticalPowerandSocialTheory,11:221…234.Walby,Sylvia.ComplexityTheory,SystemsTheory,andMultipleIntersectingSocialPhilosophyoftheSocialSciences,37:449…470.Waldinger,RogerStillaPromisedCity?AfricanAmericansandNewImmigrantsinPostindustrialNewYork.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.Waters,MaryEthnicOptions:ChoosingIdentitiesinAmerica.Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.Waters,MaryBlackIdentities:WestIndianImmigrantDreamsandAmericanRealitiesNewYork,Cambridge,MA:RussellSageFoundation,HarvardUniversityPress.Weber,MaxEconomyandSociety.Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.Weber,Max.Class,Status,Party.InH.H.GerthandC.WrightMillsMaxWeber:EssaysinSociology,pp.180…195.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.Western,BrucePunishmentandInequalityinAmerica.NewYork:RussellSageFoundation.Wilson,WilliamJuliusTheDecliningSignificanceofRace:BlacksandChangingAmerican.Chicago,IL:UniversityofChicagoPress.Winant,Howard.RaceandRaceTheory.AnnualReviewofSociology,26:169…185.Winant,HowardTheWorldisaGhetto:RaceandDemocracysinceWorldWarII.NewYork:BasicBooks.Yuval-Davis,Nira.IntersectionalityandFeministPolitics.EuropeanJournalofWomens,13:193…209.WhatisRacialDomination?DUBOISREVIEW:SOCIALSCIENCERESEARCHONRACE6:2,2009 STATEOFTHEART WHATISRACIALDOMINATION?MatthewDesmondDepartmentofSociology,UniversityofWisconsin—MadisonMustafaEmirbayerDepartmentofSociology,UniversityofWisconsin—MadisonWhenstudentsofraceandracismseekdirection,theycanfindnosinglecomprehensivesourcethatprovidesthemwithbasicanalyticalguidanceorthatoffersinsightsintotheelementaryformsofracialclassificationanddomination.Webelievethefieldwouldbenefitgreatlyfromsuchasource,andweattempttoofferonehere.Synchronizingandbuildinguponrecenttheoreticalinnovationsintheareaofrace,welendsomeconceptualclarificationtothenatureanddynamicsofraceandracialdominationsothatstudentsofthesubjects—especiallythoseseekingageneral(ifeconomical)introductiontothevastfieldofracestudies—cangainbasicinsightintohowraceworksaswellaseffective(andfallacious)waystothinkaboutracialdomination.FocusingprimarilyontheAmericancontext,webeginbydefiningraceandunpackingourdefinition.Wethendescribehowourconceptionofracemustbeinformedbythoseofethnicityandnationhood.Next,weidentifyfivefallaciestoavoidwhenthinkingaboutracism.Finally,wediscusstheresilienceofracialdomination,concentratingonhowallactorsinasocietygrippedbyracismreproducetheconditionsofracialdomination,aswellasonthebenefitsanddrawbacksofapproachesthatemphasizeintersectionality.Race,RaceTheory,RacialDomination,Inequality,IntersectionalitySynchronizingandbuildinguponrecenttheoreticalinnovationsintheareaofrace,welendsomeconceptualclarificationtothenatureanddynamicsofraceandracialdomination,providinginasingleessayasourcethroughwhichthinkers„especiallythoseseekingageneralifeconomicalintroductiontothevastfieldofracestudies„cangainbasicinsightintohowraceworksaswellaseffectivewaystothinkaboutracialdomination.Unabletolocateasingleandconciseessaythat,standingalone,summarizesthefoundationalideasofacriticalsociologyofraceandracism,wewrotethisarticletoprovidescholarsandstudentswithageneralorientationorintroduc-tiontothestudyofracialdomination.Indoingso,wehaveattemptedtolend DuBoisReview,6:2(2009)335–355.©2009W.E.B.DuBoisInstituteforAfricanandAfricanAmericanResearch1742-058X09$15.00