AGGRESSION Debashree Sinha - PowerPoint Presentation

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AGGRESSION

Debashree

Sinha

CONCEPT

In psychology, the term aggression refers to a range of

behaviours

that can result in both physical and psychological harm to oneself, others, or objects in the environment. This type of

behaviour

centres

on harming another person either physically or mentally. It can be a sign of an underlying mental health disorder, a substance use disorder, or a medical disorder.

Social psychologists define aggression as

behaviour

that is intended to harm another individual who does not wish to be harmed (Baron & Richardson, 1994). Because it involves the perception of intent, what looks like aggression from one point of view may not look that way from another, and the same harmful

behaviour

may or may not be aggressive depending on its intent.

THE BYSTANDER EFFECT

The discussion of bullying highlights the problem of witnesses not intervening to help a victim. This is a common occurrence, as the following well-publicized event demonstrates. In 1964, in Queens, New York, a 19-year-old woman named Kitty Genovese was attacked by a person with a knife near the back entrance to her apartment building and again in the hallway inside her apartment building. When the attack occurred, she screamed for help numerous times and eventually died from her stab wounds. This story became famous because reportedly numerous residents in the apartment building heard her cries for help and did nothing—neither helping her nor summoning the police—though these have facts been disputed

.

Based on this case, researchers

Latané

and Darley (1968) described a phenomenon called the bystander effect. The bystander effect is a phenomenon in which a witness or bystander does not volunteer to help a victim or person in distress. Instead, they just watch what is happening. Social psychologists hold that we make these decisions based on the social situation, not our own personality variables. Social psychologists claim that diffusion of responsibility is the likely explanation. Diffusion of responsibility is the tendency for no one in a group to help because the responsibility to help is spread throughout the group (Bandura, 1999). Because there were many witnesses to the attack on Genovese, as evidenced by the number of lit apartment windows in the building, individuals assumed someone else must have already called the police. The responsibility to call the police was diffused across the number of witnesses to the crime. In general, the greater the number of bystanders, the less likely any one person will help

Factors That Can Influence Aggression

The Role of Biology in Aggression

Aggression is controlled in large part by the area in the older part of the brain known as the

amygdala.

The amygdala is a brain region responsible for regulating our perceptions of, and reactions to, aggression and fear. The amygdala has connections with other body systems related to fear, including the sympathetic nervous system, facial responses,

and

the release of neurotransmitters related to stress and aggression.

In addition to helping us experience fear, the amygdala also helps us learn from situations that create fear.

When

we experience events that are dangerous, the amygdala stimulates the brain to remember the details of the situation so that we learn to avoid it in the future. The amygdala is activated when we look at facial expressions of other people experiencing fear or when we are exposed to members of racial out-groups (Morris, Frith,

Perrett

, & Rowland, 1996; Phelps et al., 2000).

Although the amygdala helps us perceive and respond to danger, and this may lead us to aggress, other parts of the brain serve to control and inhibit our aggressive tendencies. One mechanism that helps us control our negative emotions and aggression is a neural connection between the amygdala and regions of the prefrontal cortex (Gibson, 2002).

The prefrontal cortex is in effect a control center for aggression: when it is more highly activated, we are more able to control our aggressive impulses. Research has found that the cerebral cortex is less active in murderers and death row inmates, suggesting that violent crime may be caused at least in part by a failure or reduced ability to regulate emotions (Davidson, Jackson, &

Kalin

, 2000; Davidson, Putnam, & Larson, 2000).

Key

Brain Structures Involved in Regulating and Inhibiting Aggression

Hormones Influence Aggression: Testosterone and Serotonin

Hormones are also important in creating aggression. Most important in this regard is the male sex hormone testosterone, which is associated with increased aggression in both animals and in humans. Research conducted on a variety of animals has found a strong correlation between levels of testosterone and aggression. This relationship seems to be weaker among humans than among animals, yet it is still significant (

Dabbs

, Hargrove, &

Heusel

, 1996).

In one study showing the relationship between testosterone and behavior, James

Dabbs

and his colleagues (

Dabbs, Hargrove, & Heusel, 1996) measured the testosterone levels of 240 men who were members of 12 fraternities at two universities. They also obtained descriptions of the fraternities from university officials, fraternity officers, yearbook and researcher field notes. The researchers correlated the testosterone levels and the descriptions of each of the fraternities. They found that the fraternities that had the highest average testosterone levels were also more wild and unruly, and they were known across campus for the crudeness of their behavior. The fraternities with the lowest average testosterone levels, on the other hand, were more well-behaved, friendly, academically successful, and socially responsible. Another study found that juvenile delinquents and prisoners who have high levels of testosterone also acted more violently (Banks &

Dabbs

, 1996). Testosterone affects aggression by influencing the development of various areas of the brain that control aggressive behaviors. The hormone also affects physical development such as muscle strength, body mass, and height that influence our ability to successfully aggress.

Although testosterone levels are much higher in men than in women, the relationship between testosterone and aggression is not limited to males. Studies have also shown a positive relationship between testosterone and aggression and related behaviors (such as competitiveness) in women (

Cashdan

, 2003). Although women have lower levels of testosterone overall, they are more influenced by smaller changes in these levels than are men.

Testosterone is not the only biological factor linked to human aggression. Recent research has found that serotonin is also important, as serotonin tends to inhibit aggression. Low levels of serotonin have been found to predict future aggression (

Kruesi

,

Hibbs

, Zahn, &

Keysor

, 1992; Virkkunen, de Jong, Bartko, & Linnoila, 1989). Violent criminals have lower levels of serotonin than do nonviolent criminals, and criminals convicted of impulsive violent crimes have lower serotonin levels than criminals convicted of premeditated crimes (

Virkkunen

,

Nuutila

, Goodwin, &

Linnoila

, 1987).

Drinking Alcohol Increases Aggression

Alcohol increases aggression for a couple of reasons. First, alcohol disrupts executive functions, which are the cognitive abilities that help us plan, organize, reason, achieve goals, control emotions, and inhibit

behavioural

tendencies (

Séguin

&

Zelazo

, 2005). Executive functioning occurs in the prefrontal cortex, which is the area that allows us to control aggression. Alcohol therefore reduces the ability of the person who has consumed it to inhibit his or her aggression (Steele & Southwick, 1985).

Second, when people are intoxicated, they become more self-focused and less aware of the social situation, a state that is known as alcohol myopia. As a result, they are less likely to notice the social constraints that normally prevent them from engaging aggressively and are less likely to use those social constraints to guide them. The narrowing of attention that occurs when we are intoxicated also prevents us from being aware of the negative outcomes of our aggression. When we are sober, we realize that being aggressive may produce retaliation as well as cause a host of other problems, but we are less likely to be aware of these potential consequences when we have been drinking (Bushman & Cooper, 1990).

Negative Emotions Cause Aggression

One kind of negative affect that increases arousal when we are experiencing it is frustration (Berkowitz, 1989; Dollard,

Doob

, Miller,

Mowrer

, & Sears, 1939). Frustration occurs when we feel that we are not obtaining the important goals that we have set for ourselves. We get frustrated when our computer crashes while we are writing an important paper, when we feel that our social relationships are not going well, or when our schoolwork is going poorly. How frustrated we feel is also determined in large part through social comparison. If we can make downward comparisons with important others, in which we see ourselves as doing as well or better than they are, then we are less likely to feel frustrated. But when we are forced to make upward comparisons with others, we may feel frustration. When we receive a poorer grade than our classmates received or when we are paid less than our coworkers, this can be frustrating to us.

Aggressive Cues

Weapons

: Obviously using a weapon can increase aggression and violence, but can just seeing a weapon increase aggression? The answer is yes. Research has shown that the mere presence of a weapon increases aggression, an effect called the weapons effect.

Violent Media

: Content analyses show that violence is a common theme in many types of media, including television programs, films, and video games. The results from hundreds of studies have shown that violent media increase aggression. The correlation between TV violence and aggression is only slightly smaller than that correlation between smoking and lung cancer. Not everyone who consumes violent media becomes aggressive, and not everyone who is aggressive consumes violent media. The first violent movie seen can make a person nauseous. After repeated exposure, however, the person craves more and more. The effects of viewing violence are cumulative. Seeing one violent movie probably will not make a person more aggressive. But repeated exposure to media violence can have harmful long-term consequences.

Self and Culture

Norms and Values

: Amok is one of the few Indonesian words used in the English language. The term dates back to 1665, and describes a violent, uncontrollable madness. A young Malay man who had suffered some loss of face or other setback would run amok, recklessly performing violent acts. They believed it was impossible for young men to restrain their wild, aggressive actions under those circumstances. However, when the British colonial administration disapproved of the practice and began to hold the young men responsible for their actions, including punishing them for the harm they did, most Malays stopped running amok.

The history of running amok thus reveals three important points about aggression. First, it shows the influence of culture: The violence was accepted in one culture and prohibited in others, and when the local culture changed, the practice died out.

Second, it shows that cultures can promote violence without placing a positive value on it. There is no sign that the Malays approved of running amok or thought it was a good, socially desirable form of action, but positive value wasn’t necessary. All that was needed was for the culture to believe that it was normal for people to lose control under some circumstances and act violently as a result. Third, it shows that when people believe their aggression is beyond control, they are often mistaken—the supposedly uncontrollable pattern of running amok died out when the British cracked down on it.

Self-Control:

In 1990, two criminologists published a book called A General Theory of Crime. Such a flamboyant title was bound to stir controversy. After all, there are many crimes and many causes, and so even the idea of putting forward a single theory as the main explanation was pretty bold. Criminals seem to be impulsive individuals who simply don’t show much respect for norms, rules, and standards of behavior.

If self-control is a general capacity for bringing one’s behavior into line with rules and standards, criminals lack it. Another sign is that the lives of criminals show low self-control even in behaviors that are not against the law (e.g., smoking cigarettes).

Culture of Honor

The southern United States has long been associated with greater levels of violent attitudes and behaviors than the northern United States. In comparison to northern states, southern states have more homicides per capita, have fewer restrictions on gun ownership, allow people to shoot assailants and burglars without retreating first, are more accepting of corporal punishment of children at home and in schools, and are more supportive of any wars involving U.S. troops. Social psychologist Richard

Nisbett

hypothesized that these regional differences are caused by a southern culture of honor, which calls for violent response to threats to one’s honor. A similar culture of violence exists in the western United States, or the so-called Wild West, where a cowboy could also lose his wealth quickly by not protecting his herd. (Cowboys herded cows, hence the name.) This violent culture isn’t confined to the southern and western United States; cultural anthropologists have observed that herding cultures throughout the world tend to be more violent than agricultural cultures.

Humiliation:

Humiliation

appears to be the primary cause of violence and aggression in cultures of

honor

. Humiliation is a state of disgrace or loss of self-respect (or of respect from others). It is closely related to the concept of shame. Research shows that feelings of shame frequently lead to violent and aggressive

behavior

. In cultures of

honor

there is nothing worse than being humiliated, and the appropriate response to humiliation is swift and intense retaliation.

Age and Aggression: Research has shown that the most aggressive human beings are toddlers, children 1 to 3 years old. Researchers observing toddlers in daycare settings have found that about 25% of the interactions involve some kind of physical aggression (e.g., one child pushes another child out of the way and takes that child’s toy). High aggression rates in toddlers are most likely due to the fact that they still lack the means to communicate in more constructive ways. No adult group, not even violent youth gangs or hardened criminals, resorts to physical aggression 25% of the time.Young children do not commit many violent crimes, especially as compared to young men. This is most likely due to the fact that young children can’t do much physical damage, because they are smaller and weaker

.

Longitudinal studies show that serious aggressive and violent behavior peaks just past the age of puberty. After the age of 19, aggressive behaviors begin to decline. However, a relatively small subgroup of people continue their aggressive behavior after adolescence. These “career criminals” typically started violent offending in early life. The earlier the onset of aggressive or violent behavior is, the greater is the likelihood that it will continue later in life.

Gender and

Aggression:

Research

shows that males are more physically aggressive than females, but this difference shrinks when people are provoked. Males are also more verbally aggressive than females, although the difference is much smaller. Females are often taught to be less direct in expressing aggression, so they often resort to more indirect forms of aggression. When it comes to relational aggression, for example, females are more aggressive than males. Relational aggression is defined as intentionally harming someone’s relationships with others. Some examples of relational aggression include saying bad things about people behind their backs, withdrawing affection to get what you want, and excluding others from your circle of friends. Thus, rather than simply stating that males are more aggressive than females, it is more accurate to state that both sexes can behave aggressively, but they tend to engage in different types of aggression.

Aggression and Biased Social Information

Processing:

People

do not passively respond to the things happening around them, but they actively try to perceive, understand, and attach meaning to these events. For example, when someone bumps a shopping cart into your knee in the local supermarket, you will likely do more than just feel the pain and take another carton of milk from the shelf. Instead, you will try to make sense of what happened to you (often this occurs automatically and so fast that you’re not even aware of it): Why did this person bump me? Was it an accident or was it intentional?

According to the social information processing model, the way people process information in a situation can have a strong influence on how they behave. In aggressive people, the processing of social information takes a different course than in nonaggressive people. For example, aggressive people have a hostile perception bias. They perceive social interactions as more aggressive than nonaggressive people do. Aggressive people pay too much attention to potentially hostile information and tend to overlook other types of information. They see the world as a hostile place. Aggressive people have a hostile expectation bias. They expect others to react to potential conflicts with aggression. Furthermore, aggressive people have a hostile attribution bias. They assume that others have hostile intentions. When people perceive

ambiguous

behaviours

as stemming from hostile intentions, they are much more likely to behave aggressively than when they perceive the same

behaviors

as stemming from other intentions. Finally, aggressive people are more likely than others to believe that “aggression pays.” In estimating the consequences of their behavior, they are overly focused on how to get what they want, and they do not focus much on maintaining good relationships with others. This is why aggressive people often choose aggressive solutions for interpersonal problems and ignore other solutions.