AN INVESTIGATION OF LEAD AND CADMIUM - PDF document

1 AN INVESTIGATION OF LEAD AND CADMIUM IN SOFT TOYS IN THREE CITIES IN INDIA 2 Executive Summary Opportunities and challenges of a globalised world have made India strive to gain foothold in the toy industry globally. Ac cording to available gures, the global toy market presently is of the order of 05.0 billion. SA is the world’s biggest importer of toys (imports worth 5.0 billion) having a market share of approximately 0 per cent. This is followed by Ger many, which provides for 8 per cent of the world market (9.0 billion), succeeded by Hong Kong per cent (billion), with ritain coming next at 7 per cent of the global market (S$8.0 billion) and France contributing 6 per cent (S $ The unorganised sector dominates the toy manufacturing industry in India. It is estimated that the industry volume is .0 billion in the organised sector and about .5 billion in the unorganised sector. There are more than 000 units in the small-scale sector and a larger number in the cottage sector, which is labour intensive and hence considered suitable for a poor country like India. Some Multi National Corporations (MNCs) (like Mattel) are also present in India. Soft toys account for 5 per cent of India’s total production of toys. Mumbai and Delhi account for nearly 95 per cent of the toy output. India has nearly 0 millions plus children below six years of age, who are the prime users of toys. More than 6 million children are living in slums in the country and they constitute 6.4 per cent of the total child population making every sixth urban child in the country in the age group 0-6 a slum dweller, all potential users of cheap plastic toys. This makes it imperative to study and understand the toxic contents of toys since it concerns the future of children. It is widely accepted that no level of lead or cadmium in blood shall be considered as safe for children and hence every effort should be made to ensure that their environment remains free of any threat to exposure from any toxics metal. Children and pregnant women are especially vulnerable to lead poisoning. It also affects the cognitive function of brain. Therefore, toys, which form an important component of children’s immediate environment, must be examined to nd the toxic contents in it. The present study was undertaken primarily with an aim to ascertain the levels of total lead and cadmium in PVC and non- PVC toys. Lead and cadmium can act as stabilizers in PVC toys. They can also be used in pigments to impart bright colours to them in order to attract children. In this study, a total of non-branded toy samples were purchased randomly from three metropolitan cities of Delhi, Mumbai and Chennai, which were then sent to Delhi Test House*, a Delhi based NA(National Accreditation oard for Testing and Calibration Laboratories, Department of Science and Technology, Government of India) accredited laboratory, for further analysis. Out of toy samples tested for chlorine (eilstein test), 77 were found to be made up of PVC materials while rest toy samples were made up of non-PVC plastic materials. 4 out of 60 toy samples purchased from Delhi tested positive for PVC, all 0 toy samples purchased from Mumbai tested positive for PVC while Chennai samples had only 4 toys out A total of 88 samples (77 PVC and non-PVC) were further analysed for lead and cadmium. Pb (lead) and Cd (cad - mium) were found to be present in all tested samples in varying concentrations. The overall average concentrations of lead and cadmium are ppm and ppm respectively. The range for lead concentration in tested samples was 04 ppm to 0.65 ppm. For cadmium, the range was from 0.06 ppm to Out of 0 samples analysed for total concentration of Pb and Cd in toys brought from Mumbai, eight samples showed 0 percent of Mumbai samples analysed) showed very high lead concentration (from 878.6 ppm to S EPA limit of 600 ppm in painted toys.*Delhi Test House , A 6 G.T.Karnal Road , Azadpur , Delhi- 3 Recommendations The present study clearly demonstrates that soft plastic toys in India do contain lead and cadmium. Some even have very high concentrations. It does establish problems of toxic metals in toys. As stated earlier, there is no safe limit of toxic contents in toys. The entire issue of standards needs to be re-visited. No amount of lead or cadmium be allowed in toys. Standards need to be made compulsory in order to make toy manufacturers strictly adhere to it. The concern is higher for PVC toys since the plastic allows for easy leachability and also has other additives such as phthalates. 4 Toys are an integral part of children’s developmental processes. Children play with toys and learn about the world. providing entertainment to children, toys also serve as educational materials for them. Wikipedia denes a toy as something used in play by children, adults or pets 1 . U are manufactured to serve as toys, but any other items can also be used as toys depending upon children’s imagination and perception. The history of toys is as old as the history of human civilisation. Toys have also been unearthed from the sites of ancient Indus Valley civilisation. Toys can broadly be categorised as mechanical toys, electrical toys and soft toys. According to available gures, the global toy market presently is of the order of 05.0 billion. SA is the world’s biggest importer of toys (imports worth billion) having a market share of approximately 0 per cent. This is followed by Germany, which provides for 8 per cent of the world market (9.0 billion), succeeded by Hong Kong per cent (4.0 billion), with ritain coming next at 7 per cent of the global market (S$8.0 billion) and France contributing 6 per cent (S $ 6.5 billion) 2 . India’s export-import gures of toys are given in annexure I and II. A toy may mean different things to children of different age groups and hence exposure pathways also differ accordingly. A child of below years may handle a toy in a completely different manner from a child of -6 years age group, for ex - ample. Toys may also inict accidental injuries to children. Sharp edges of toys or other electrical, mechanical or ammable characteristics may cause accidents. Chemical exposure to children, especially from toys, is an emerging concern. Children suck toys or sometimes chew them resulting in ingestion of harmful substances. Even short-term exposure of such chemi - cals may cause severe and long-term impacts on children’s health. Toy manufacturers add bright colours to toys to attract children. These only compound the problems as most of these colours are organo-metallic compounds and are added to toys during the last stage of manufacturing. Metals in materials and paints are loosely bound to the surface and can leach easily. However, with toxic chemicals, both organic and inorganic, in children’s immediate environment has come into the focus of both environmentalists and medical scientists. Environmental hazards and their impacts on children’s health is an emerging area of modern public health science. It goes without saying that children’s health, both physical and mental, are important for society and for the future generations, and the state must ensure that children’s immediate environment remains free of Toys made up of PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride, CH=CHCl) are a potential source of risks to children. Polyvinyl Chloride, a leading chlorine containing plastic, is a polymer, or large chain-like molecule, made up of repeating units of Vinyl Chloride (a mono - mer), commonly referred to as Vinyl or PVC. It is one of the most commonly used materials in the consumer market. It is used in packaging, construction and automotive material, all categories of products, including toys, and medical equipments. PVC has a special problem of auto-digestion since free chlorine radicals in the structure reacts with free hydrogen radicals forming HCl (Hydrochloric acid) leading to the digestion of PVC, which causes a chain reaction and proceeds rapidly to completely loose strength (causing damage to manufacturing equipment as well). Lead or cadmium is hence added to PVC as stabilis - ers, to prevent the free chlorine radicals from reacting with hydrogen radicals to form HCl. 3 . Lead compounds are the most common stabilisers in PVC. Some of them are; basic lead carbonate, lead stearate, basic lead stearate, tribasic lead stearate, basic (dibasic) lead stearate and basic lead phthalate. Other metals have also been used when lead came under regulatory scrutiny, which include Cd, Zinc, organotins, etc. Lead and cadmium are also added into PVC or other plastic products as colouring agents in form of organo-metallic compounds. What is noteworthy here is that, unlike popular perceptions, metal stabilisers are not bound to the polymer, but freely available to leach out over time or in response to light, chewing, etc. So toys made up of PVC when chewed or sucked by children put them at a risk of severe exposure to lead and cadmium. Incidences of lead poisoning in children led to the rst public study to ascertain the presence of lead in PVC by Arizona Health Department in 4 . However, it is widely believed that industry had knowledge of this problem through their internal stud - ies for a much longer time. This study was initiated after health department ofcials failed to locate the known sources of lead 5 poisoning in children from Arizona, North Carolina and Virginia. In fact, they found the source to be rigid vinyl mini blinds in the children’s rooms, which had very large amount of lead dusts on blinds and windowsills. Children were exposed to lead upon chewing it. A Greenpeace study on lead and cadmium contents in PVC toys collected from SA markets raised concerns about children’s health. 5 . It found signicantly high concentrations of lead and cadmium in a signicant number of samples of PVC toys. It also found high concentrations of lead and cadmium in their leachates. The chewing and swallowing of toys by children is a common path for lead and cadmium exposure. The leaching study was carried out to imitate normal behav - iour by keeping the commonly chewable toy products in mildly acidic conditions at body temperature. Lead and cadmium concentrations were, then, determined in the leachates. 6 Health Impacts of Lead and Cadmium Lead and cadmium a r e known poisons, being neu r otoxins and neph r otoxins (Neu r otoxins a r e agents that can cause toxic ef - fects on the nervous system while neph r otoxins a r e agents that can cause toxic e f fects on the kidney) r espectivel y . Physicians and scientists ag r ee that no level of lead in blood is safe or normal. The disturbing fact is that exposu r e to ext r emely small amounts can have long-term and measurable e f fects in child r en while at the same time causing no distinctive symptoms. Another p r oblem of lead exposu r e is it being cumulative in natu r e. After lead is absorbed into blood, some of it is lte r ed out and exc r eted, but the r est is distributed in the live r , brain, kidneys and bones. What ’ s mo r e disturbing is what happens when lead gets into the bones. B one sto r es lead and stay the r e for decades. It can r eenter the body when bone b r eaks down as part of a r egular metabolic p r ocess or due to some specic physiological conditions like osteopo r osis, causing r eexposu r e. Lead Child r en and p r egnant women a r e particularly susceptible to lead poisoning. Child r en ’ s digestive systems absorbs up to 50 per cent of the lead they ingest. 6 . The high r etention occurs f r om birth to the age of 6 years, when the brain is developing. Lead interfe r es with its development. B y the time physical symptoms a r e evident - headache, lethargy or hyperactivit y , nau - sea, stomach aches, vomiting, and constipation - signicant brain damage has p r obably al r eady occur r ed. Abdominal pain, vomiting and constipation helps g r eatly to di f fe r entiate lead f r om infectious disease that cause similar symp - toms and a r e common, but r esult only in diarrhoea. Child r en pick up lead dust f r om the oo r , f r om toys and pets, f r om house paints and f r om vinyl blinds. They ingest lead when they put their hands in their mouths, when they eat with their hands, when they suck their thumb and when they ingest soil. B lood lead levels in child r en of a r ound 1 0 µg/dl a r e associated with disturbances in early physical and mental g r owth and in later intellectual functioning and academic achievement. These ef - fects persist into adulthood and may be ir r eversible. In fact no level of lead in blood is safe. 7 . It is important to understand that what constituted ‘safe’ yeste r day is no longer ‘safe’ today and what is ‘safe’ today may not be ‘safe’ tomor r o w . The p r esent ‘safe’ limit of 1 0 µg/dl was actually 60 µg/dl in sixties and then it was b r ought down to 3 0 µg/dl in seventies, which was again r evised in 1 985 to make it 2 5 µg/dl only to be r evised again in 1 99 1 as 1 0 µg/dl as the safe limit. 8 . P r og r essive elevation of blood lead levels in a child ’ s system can cause a potential genius to d r op to an average achievement level and an average child to become lea r ning disabled. The foetuses of p r egnant women a r e seve r ely a f fected by lead exposu r e since lead can pass th r ough the placenta di r ectly into the bab y . When an expectant mother maintains a poor diet, the p r oblem is compounded since she will start b r eaking down bone to r elease calcium and other minerals, the r eby r eleasing lead sto r ed in the bones, which passes to the developing bab y . High lead exposu r e could also r esult in fetal death. The W orld Health Organisation (WHO) estimates that 1 5- 1 8 million child r en in developing countries a r e su f fering f r om permanent brain damage owing to lead poisoning. 9 . Hund r eds of millions of child r en and p r egnant women in practically all the developing countries a r e believed to be exposed to elevated levels of lead. Cadmium Human uptake of cadmium takes place mainly th r ough food. Foodstu f fs that a r e rich in cadmium can g r eatly inc r ease the cadmium concentration in human bodies. An exposu r e to signicantly higher cadmium levels occurs when people a r e ex - posed to tobacco smoke either di r ectly or indi r ectl y , since tobacco smoke transports cadmium into the lungs. B lood will transport it th r ough the r est of the body whe r e it can inc r ease e f fects by potentiating cadmium that is al r eady p r esent f r om cadmium-rich food. Cadmium is rst transported to the liver th r ough the blood. The r e, it bonds to p r oteins to form complexes that a r e transported to the kidneys. It accumulates in kidneys, whe r e it damages ltering mechanisms. This causes the exc r etion of essential p r o - teins and sugars f r om the body and further kidney damage. It takes a very long time befo r e cadmium that has accumulated in kidneys is exc r eted f r om a human bod y . Cadmium dust (cadmium oxide, CdO) is another sou r ce for cancer in human beings 1 0 Cadmium when r eleased as ne airbo r ne particles then r eacts almost immediately with oxygen to form r espirable cad - mium oxide, which is a ca r cinogen. It is important to mention that PVC r eleases its metal stabilisers as dust on its surface. 11 and its urban population as per Census 2 00 1 was about 13 million with nearly 40 per cent of its population living in slum. In Chennai, nearly 2 6 per cent of the population lives in slums and as urban squatters. India has nearly 13 0 million child r en below six years of age, the population which could be the prime users of toys. A r ound 2 .5 million child r en in the age g r oup 0-6 a r e living in the slum a r eas of million plus cities, which constitutes 2 7. 3 per cent of the total child population of these 2 7 cities. In G r eater Mumbai alone, the number of child r en in the age g r oup 0-6 a r e 0.86 million ( 13 . 2 pe r cent of cities total child population) followed by 0. 3 million ( 1 6. 2 pe r cent of total child population) in Delhi. The child population in slums to the total child population in Chennai is 11 .5 pe r cent. Toys’ Description All types of toys we r e pu r chased f r om the locations specied. The toys we r e typically bright in colour and a r e available in largely darker shades of r ed, yello w , purple and g r een or a mix of these colours. Almost all of these toys we r e soft and easily squeezable. The main types of toys we r e r eplicas of fruits, animals, bab y , dolls and bi r ds. Some of them we r e r eplicas of at - tractive eatables such as cakes, pastries, etc. Lab Methodolgy All toy samples we r e b r ought to a laboratory for further tests. The lab tests we r e carried out in DTH (Delhi T est House), an NA B L (National Acc r editation B oa r d for T esting and Calibration Laboratories, Department of Science and technolog y , Gov - e r nment of India) acc r edited laboratory in Delhi. T est for PVC All toy samples we r e rst tested for PVC using the B eilstein test. The B eilstein test is based on the principle that copper ha - lides vapourise r eadil y , giving o f f a blue-g r een colo r ed ame owing to the p r esence of coppe r . 23 . T o perform this test, copper wi r e ( 1 8- 2 0 gauge), inserted into a cork (which served as an insulated handle), was heated in a blue B unsen bu r ne r . The hot wi r e was touched to an inconspicuous part of the plastic toy to be tested in o r der to melt some of the polymer onto the wi r e; and then the wi r e was r eheated in the ame. A blue-g r een colou r ed ame, which persisted only a few seconds, indicated the p r esence of a halogen (excluding uorine) and suggested that the polymer was PVC. T est for Lead and Cadmium All toy samples, which tested positive for PVC, we r e further tested for total contents of lead and cadmium. A few non-PVC toy samples we r e also tested for the total content of lead and cadmium. The methodology included subjecting samples rst to ashing to b r eakdown the PVC and then digesting in acco r dance with E P A SW-846 3 050 (digestion with Nitric Acid and Hyd r ogen Pe r oxide) ( 2 4). The step-wise methodology for quantitative estimation of lead and cadmium in PVC toys a r e as follows: 1 . 2 gm of sample was weighed and taken in a silica Crucible and then charred on a hot plate till fumes ceased. 2 . Next the crucible was kept in a mufe fu r nace at 480 C 0 0 for 4 hrs. for complete ashing. 3 . Subsequently crucible was taken out of the fu r nace and kept in desiccators for cooling. 4. After cooling, samples we r e powde r ed and homogenised in the silica crucible. 5. Samples were then acid digested. Supra-pu r e Me r ck (lead and cadmium f r ee) nitric acid and hyd r ogen pe r oxide we r e used for digestion in an open vessel. 13 Fig 1: Sampling locations Fig 2: Pb (ppm) and Cd (ppm) Total Pb (ppm) and Cd (ppm) Concentration in Toy Samples from Delhi Fig 3: Total Pb (ppm) and Cd (ppm) Concentration in Toy Samples from Chennai 1 Fig 7: Frequency distribution for Pb in Toy Samples from Chennai Fig 8: Frequency distribution for Cd in Toy Samples from Chennai 1 Fig 9: Frequency distribution for Pb in Toy Samples from Mumbai Fig 10: Frequency distribution for Cd in Toy Samples from Mumbai Reproductive and Cancer Hazard Assessment Section, Ofce of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, California Environmental Protection Agency. Draft. Evidence of development and reproductively toxicity of cadmium. US Consumer Product Safety Commission. Memo from A. Schoem, Ofce of Compliance to P. Rush, executive direc tor, Window Covering Safety Council. July http://www.turnertoys.com/PVC_framepageGanning A.E., ., Dallner J. (984) Phthalate Esters and their Effect on the Liver. Hepatology V4 No , Pp 54 http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/en/consleg/pdf/http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_risk/committees/sct/documents/out 22 1 22 23 23 2 3 1 11 11 23children, dolls carriages/strollers tricycles, scooters, Dolls, representing only 1 2 2 2 23 3Articles for arcade, table or 12 232 1 1 2billiards, casino tables, cards, video games, chess, Total Annexture - I : Toy Exports from india 1 22 23 23 2 2 1 2 31children; dolls carriages/strollers tricycles, scooters, Dolls, representing only 3 12Articles for arcade, table or 2 2 1 1 1billiards, casino tables, cards, Total Annexture - II : Toy Imports into India 23 Description of toys and the market from where toys were purchasedPurchased from Chandni chowk, New DelhiPurchased from Chandni chowk, New DelhiPurchased from Chandni chowk, New DelhiPurchased from Chandni chowk, New DelhiPurchased from Chandni chowk, New DelhiPurchased from Chandni chowk, New DelhiPurchased from Chandni chowk, New DelhiPurchased from Chandni chowk, New DelhiPurchased from Chandni chowk, New DelhiPurchased from Chandni chowk, New DelhiPurchased from Sadar azar, DelhiPurchased from Sadar azar, DelhiPurchased from Sadar azar, DelhiPurchased from Sadar azar, DelhiPurchased from Sadar azar, DelhiPurchased from Sadar azar, DelhiPurchased from Sadar azar, DelhiPurchased from Sadar azar, DelhiPurchased from Sadar azar, DelhiPurchased from Sadar azar, DelhiPurchased from Sadar azar, DelhiPurchased from Sadar azar, DelhiPurchased from Sadar azar, DelhiPurchased from Sadar azar, DelhiPurchased from Sadar azar, DelhiPurchased from Sadar azar, DelhiPurchased from Sadar azar, DelhiPurchased from Sadar azar, DelhiPurchased from Sadar azar, DelhiPurchased from Sadar azar, DelhiPurchased from Sadar azar, DelhiPurchased from Road side vendors, Jungpura, New DelhiPurchased from Road side vendors, Jungpura, New DelhiPurchased from Road side vendors, Jungpura, New DelhiPurchased from Tigri resttlement area, New DelhiPurchased from Tigri resttlement area, New DelhiRed fruit; Purchased from Munirka, New Delhiellow fruit; Purchased from Munirka, New DelhiLight pink sh; Purchased from Munirka, New Delhiellow sh; Purchased from Munirka, New DelhiGreen sh; Purchased from Munirka, New Delhiellow star; Purchased from Munirka, New Delhilue starsh; Purchased from Munirka, New DelhiPink starsh; Purchased from Munirka, New DelhiGreen small dog; Purchased from Munirka, New Delhiellow small dog; Purchased from Munirka, New Delhi Annexture - III : Samples Catalogue 2 Description of toys and the market from where toys were purchasedPink small dog; Purchased from Munirka, New DelhiPink lithci fruit; Purchased from Munirka, New Delhilue Krishna doll; Purchased from asant nagar beach, street vendor, , ChennaiClown; Purchased from Tambram market, ChennaiGreen frog; Purchased from pavement bazar, Pondy bazar, ChennaiGreen ball; Purchased from Thiruvanmiyar market, ChennaiLittle boy; Purchased from Pondy bazar, ChennaiClolouful small animal; Purchased from Thiruvanmiyur market, ChennaiDrum beating clown Purchased from Tambram Market, ChennaiOrange sunglasses; Purchased from Street vendor, Spiderman mask; Purchased from Thirvuanmiyur market, ChennaiHero spiderman; Purchased from Thiruvanmiyur market, Chennaiellow doll; Purchased from Mumbai Red doll; Purchased from Mumbai Green parrot; Purchased from Mumbai Appu; Purchased from Mumbai White dog; Purchased from Mumbai ellow dog; Purchased from Mumbai oy on horse; Purchased from Mumbai Fish; Purchased from Mumbai Pink sh; Purchased from Mumbai Green sh; Purchased from Mumbai Green sh; Purchased from Mumbai ellow sparrow; Purchased from Mumbai Doll; Purchased from Mumbai Green boy doll; Purchased from MumbaiSmart boy with hat; Purchased from MumbaiCow Policeman; Purchased from MumbaiOrange, cow; Purchased from MumbaiCalf deer; Purchased from Mumbairidegroom; Purchased from MumbaiPink hare; Purchased from Mumbai Kangaroo; Purchased from Mumbai Doctor; Purchased from MumbaiDoll; Purchased from Mumbai Doll with puppy; Purchased from MumbaiTortoise; Purchased from Mumbaiabydeer; Purchased from MumbaiWhite green horse; Purchased from MumbaiDoll with hair; Purchased from MumbaiDoll; Purchased from Mumbai Samples Catalogue 2 eilstein Test Annexture - IV : Lead and cadmium concentration in PVC and non PVC toys Data related to Lead and Cadmium concentration in toy samples 2 eilstein Test Lead and cadmium concentration in PVC and non PVC toys est for Lead and Cadmium