CharlesS.Carver,MichaelF.Scheier,SuzanneC.SegerstromDepartmentofPsycho - PDF document

CharlesS.Carver,MichaelF.Scheier,SuzanneC.SegerstromDepartmentofPsychology,UniversityofMiami,CoralGables,FL33124-0751,UnitedStatesCarnegieMellonUniversity,UnitedStates ClinicalPsychologyReview30(2010)879 Correspondingauthor.Tel.:+13052842817;fax:+13052843402.E-mailaddress:(C.S.Carver). seefrontmatter©2010ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved. ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirectClinicalPsychologyReview important.Researchoverthepasttwoandahalfdecadessuggeststhatthefolkwisdomisright(atleastinthiscase).Thisrathersimpleanticipatinggoodversusanticipatingbadislinkedtocoreprocessesthatunderliebehavior.Thewaysinwhichoptimistsandpessimistsdifferintheirapproachtotheworldhavesubstantialimpactontheirlives.Thesepeopledifferinhowtheyconfrontproblems;theydifferinhowwelltheycopewithadversity;theyalsodifferintheirresources,bothsocialandsocioeconomic.Individualdifferencesinoptimismarerelevanttoclinicalpsy-chologybecausethisdimensionisassociated,bothdirectlyandindirectly,andatbothanindividualandasociallevel,withriskforpsychopathology.Atthemostbasiclevel,optimismbydenitionisinverselyrelatedtohopelessness,ariskfactorfordepressivedisordersAlloyetal.,2006).Further,optimismappearstoconferresiliencetostressfullifeevents,whichareassociatedwithriskforbothonsetandrelapseofpsychopathology(e.g.,Ellicott,Hammen,Gitlin,Brown,&Jamison,1990;Finlay-Jones&Brown,1981).Finally,atthebroadestlevels,optimismclusterswithotherfactorssuchassocioeconomicstatusandsocialintegration,whichasagrouphaveprotectiveeffectsforbothmentalandphysicalhealth(House,Landis,&Umberson,1988;Kawachi&Berkman,2001;Lorantetal.,2003).Insum,thetraitofoptimismmayprovidecognitive,coping,andcontextualresourcesthatpromotebettermentalhealth.Indeed,thepatternofassociationsthatoptimismhaswithvariousbehavioralandcognitivetendenciesmaygiveusbroaderhintsaboutthenatureofoptimalliving.1.Theoreticalgroundingcdenitionsofoptimismandpessimismfocusonexpec-tanciesforthefuture.Thislinkstheseideastoalonghistoryofexpectancy-valuemodelsofmotivation.Expectancy-valuetheoriesassumethatbehaviorreectsthepursuitofgoals:desiredstatesoractions.Themoreimportantagivengoalistotheperson,thegreaterAustin&Vancouver,1996;Carver&Scheier,1998;Higgins,2006).Theotherfacetofthismotivationalmodelisexpectancycondencethatthegoalcanbeattained.Ifpeopledoubttheycanreachagoal,theymaywithdrawefforttowardit.Theymaystopprematurely,ortheactionmayneverreallystart.Peoplewhoarecondentabouteventuallyreachinganoutcomewillpersevereeveninthefaceofgreatadversity.Theexpectancyconstructhasawiderangeofapplicability.denceanddoubtcanpertaintonarrowcontexts(e.g.,theabilitytogotoagrocerystoretoobtainfood),tomoderatelybroadcontexts(e.g.,theabilitytoprepareanelegantmeal),andtoevenbroadercontexts(e.g.,theabilitytodevelopareputationasanexceptionalhost).Optimismandpessimismarebroad,generalizedversionsofdenceanddoubt;theyarecondenceanddoubtpertainingtolife,ratherthantojustaspeciccontext(Scheier&Carver,1992Thus,optimistsshouldtendtobecondentandpersistentinthefaceofdiverselifechallenges(evenwhenprogressisdifcultorslow).Pessimistsshouldbedoubtfulandhesitantinthesamesituations.Suchdifferencesinhowpeopleconfrontadversityhaveimplicationsforsuccessincompletinggoal-directedbehavior.Theyalsohaveimplicationsforthemannerinwhichpeoplecopewithstress.1.1.MeasurementissuesThereareatleasttwowaystothinkaboutgeneralizedexpectan-ciesandhowtomeasurethem.Oneistomeasurethemdirectly,askingpeoplewhethertheyexpectoutcomesintheirlivestobegoodorbad(Scheier&Carver,1992).ThisapproachisreectedintheLifeOrientationTest(LOT)anditssuccessortheLifeOrientationTest-Revised(LOT-R;Scheier,Carver,&Bridges,1994).Thisisthemeasurewehaveusedinourownworkonthistopic.Itconsistsofasetofstatements(e.g.,I'malwaysoptimisticaboutmyfuture,Irarelycountongoodthingshappeningtome[reversed])towhichpeopleindicatetheiragreementordisagreementonamulti-pointscale(othermeasuresofthistraithavealsobeencreatedwithasimilarstructure,e.g.,Dember,Martin,Hummer,Howe,&Melton,1989Adifferentapproachtomeasuringoptimismrestsontheideathatpeople'sexpectanciesforthefuturestemfromtheirinterpretationsofthepast(Peterson&Seligman,1984).Ifpastfailuresareseenasectingstablecauses,morefailurewillbeexpected,becausethecause(whichisrelativelypermanent)islikelytoremaininforce.Ifpastfailuresareseenasreectingunstablecauses,theoutlookforthefuturemaybebrighter,becausethecausemaynolongerbepresent.Inlinewiththisreasoning,someassessoptimismandpessimismaspatternsofattributionsaboutthecausesofevents(e.g.,Peterson&Seligman,1984),andinferthattheattributionsultimatelyyieldexpectancies.Itturnsout,however,thatstableattributionsfornegativeeventsareonlymodestlyassociatedwithmeasuresofgeneralizedexpectanciesAhrens&Haaga,1993;Peterson&Vaidya,2001).Thus,despitethefactthatthetwomeasuresrelatetoconceptuallysimilaroutcomes,theycannotbeconsideredinterchangeable.Apreferenceforoneapproachtoassessmentversustheothermaydependonwhetheroneviewsattributionsorexpectanciesasthemorefundamentalorcrucialelement,ortheelementthatismoresusceptibletotherapeuticchange.Eachmeasurementapproachyieldsacontinuousdistributionofscores.Itiscommontorefertooptimistsandpessimistsasthoughtheyweredistinctcategoriesofpeople,butthisisaverbalconvenience.Almostneverisalinedrawnandpeopleplacedinonegrouportheother.Peoplerangefromveryoptimistictoverypessimistic,withmostbeingsomewherebetween.Ontheotherhand,itispossibletoidentifypeoplewhoareoptimisticinanabsolutesense,becausetheyagreewithoptimisticitems(e.g.,Inuncertaintimes,Iusuallyexpectthebest)anddisagreewithpessimisticitems(e.g.,Ifsomethingcangowrongforme,itwill).Inthesamewayitisalsopossibletoidentifypeoplewhoarepessimistsinanabsolutesense.Doingthisrevealsthatpessimistsareaminority.Mostpeopleareoptimistic,buttovaryingdegrees(Segerstrom,2006a),andtheliteratureshouldbeinterpretedinthislight.Putdifferently,weknowmoreaboutpeoplewhoarelessoptimisticthanweknowaboutpeoplewhoaretrulypessimists.1.2.FurtherissuesHowstableisaperson'slevelofoptimism?Optimismisatrait.Aswithmosttraits,testretestcorrelationsarerelativelyhigh,rangingfrom.58to.79overperiodslastingfromafewweeksto3years(Atienza,Stephens,&Townsend,2004;Lucas,Diener,&Suh,1996;Scheier&Carver,1985;Scheieretal.,1994).Testretestreliabilityhasbeenfoundtobehighevenacrosslongertimeperiods.Forexample,Matthews,Räikkönen,Sutton-Tyrrell,andKuller(2004)foundatestretestcorrelationof.71acrossa10.4yearperiodinagroupofmiddle-agewomen.Someofthisstabilityarisesfromoptimism'sstablesources.Optimism'sheritabilityestimateisapproximately25%(Plominetal.,1992).Eventhoughthisislowerthanmanypersonalitytraits,itisstillsubstantial.Otherevidencepointstochildhoodenvironment,particu-larlythepresenceofresourcessuchasparentalwarmthandnancialsecurity,asapredictorofadultoptimism(Heinonen,Räikkönen,&Keltikangas-Järvinen,2005;Heinonenetal.,2006Nonetheless,therearealsovariationsinoptimism,bothmoment-to-momentandoverextendedperiods.Forinstance,aspeoplepreparetoconfrontathreat,theirstatesofcondencemayshifttemporarilydownward,whethertheyarebasicallyoptimistsorpessimistsSweeny,Carroll,&Shepperd,2006).Indeed,long-termstabilityinpessimismisnotalwayshigh.One10-yeartestcorrelationwasonly.35(Segerstrom,2007).Thisclearlyindicateschangeinthistraitforatleastsomepeople.ItisperhapsnoteworthythatthisstudyexaminedthestabilityofoptimismacrossaperiodoftimeofconsiderablechangeintheC.S.Carveretal./ClinicalPsychologyReview30(2010)879 participants'lifecircumstances.Thatis,baselinemeasuresoccurredwhenparticipantswereinlawschool,andthefollow-upcamewhenparticipantswerewellengagedintheirlawpractices.Perhapsoptimismismorechangeableduringtimesoflifetransition,whenthereisbreakfrompriorexperience,andoutcomesbecomemoreItisalsoofinterestthatchangeinthatstudywasmainlyintheoptimisticdirectionandwaspredictedbyincreasesinsocialresources.Wewillconsidertheeffectsofoptimismonsocialandsocioeconomicresourceaccumulationlateron;evidencethatopti-mismisalsoaffectedbysuchresourcessuggeststhepossibilityofamutuallyreinforcingcycle.Thequestionofhowreadilychangeinoptimismcanbepurposefullyinducedisalsotakenuplater.nalissuethatbearsmentionisthattherehasbeencontroversyaboutwhethertheoptimismconstructshouldbeseenasonebipolardimensionorwhethertherearetwoseparabledimensions,onepertainingtotheafrmationofoptimism,theotherpertainingtormationofpessimism.Therehavebeencasesinwhichseparatingthosequalitieshasledtobetterpredictionofoutcomes(Wortman,Kusulas,Hervig,&Vickers,1992;Robinson-Whelen,Kim,MacCallum,&Kiecolt-Glaser,1997)butthatconsequencehasbynomeansbeenuniversal.Anumberofstudiesaimedatsettlingtheissuehavecometodifferentconclusions,someholdingthataunidimen-sionalviewisaccurate(Rauch,Schweizer,&Moosbrugger,2007othersthattherearetwodimensions(Herzberg,Glaesmer,&Hoyer,).Thecorequestionseemstobewhethertheseparationofresponsestopositivelywordeditemsfromresponsestonegativelywordeditems(apatternthatisquitecommoninmeasureswiththatstructure)reectsmethodvarianceorsubstantivevariance.Thejuryisstilloutonthatissue.However,itremainsanimportantclinicalaswellastheoreticalquestion,inthatsomehavearguedthatinterven-tionsshouldbetargetedtoaddressoptimisticaswellaspessimisticcognition(Riskind,Sarampote,&Mercier,1996).Whetheronesideortheotherismoreimportant,ifindeedtherearetwosidesatall,needsfurtherempiricalclariForthesakeofsimplicity,inthisarticlewetreatoptimismpessimismasonedimension.Itshouldbekeptinmind,however,thatinsomestudieswhatmatteredmostwastheextenttowhichpeopleendorseversusrejectapessimisticoutlook;inotherstudieswhatmattersmostwastheextenttowhichpeopleendorseversusrejectanoptimisticoutlook.Inyetotherstudies,thisissuedidnotmatteratall.Inthenextsectionswedescribesomewaysinwhichindividualdifferencesinoptimismversuspessimism,measuredasexpectationsforone'sfuture,relatetootheraspectsoflife(seealsoSegerstrom,2006aManifestationsofoptimismaregroupedhereintovesections,dealingwithsubjectivewell-being,coping,fosteringandinterferingwithwell-being,physicalhealth,andsocioeconomicandsocialresources.2.Optimismandsubjectivewell-beingAstraightforwardinuenceofoptimismandpessimismisonhowpeoplefeelwhentheyencounterproblems.Whenconfrontingculty,people'semotionsrangefromenthusiasmandeagernesstoanger,anxiety,anddepression.Thebalanceamongfeelingsrelatestodifferencesinoptimism.Optimistsexpectgoodoutcomes,evenwhenthingsarehard.Thisyieldsarelativelypositivemixoffeelings.Pessimistsexpectbadoutcomes.Thisyieldsmorenegativefeelingsanxiety,anger,sadness,evendespair(Carver&Scheier,1998;Scheier&Carver,1992Relationsbetweenoptimismanddistresshavebeenexaminedinawiderangeofcontexts.ThosestudiedincludestudentsstartingcollegeAspinwall&Taylor,1992;Brissette,Scheier,&Carver,2002);survivorsofmissileattacks(Zeidner&Hammer,1992);cancercaregivers(Givenetal.,1993);Alzheimer'scaregivers(Hooker,Monahan,Shifren,&Hutchinson,1992;Shifren&Hooker,1995);andpeopledealingwithstressesofchildbirth(Carver&Gaines,1987),coronaryarterybypasssurgery(Fitzgerald,Tennen,Afeck,&Pransky,1993;Scheieretal.,1989),failedattemptsatinvitrofertilization(Litt,Tennen,Afeck,&Klock,1992),bonemarrowtransplantation(Curbow,Somereld,Baker,Wingard,&Legro,1993),cancer(Carveretal.,1993;Friedmanetal.,1992),andtheprogressionofAIDS(Tayloretal.,1992Thestudiesdonevaryincomplexityandwhattheyareabletoshow.Someoftheworkiscross-sectional,showingthatloweroptimismrelatestoreportsofmoredistressinsomedifcultsituation.Whatthosestudiescannotshowiswhetherlessoptimisticpeoplehadmoredistressevenpriortotheadversity.Otherstudiesassesspeopleatmultipletimepoints.Thesestudiesgiveabetterpictureofhowdistressshiftsovertimeandcircumstances,andallowresearcherstocontrolforinitiallevelsofdistress.Wefocushereonthissortofresearch.Averyearlystudyofoptimismandemotionalwell-beingexaminedthedevelopmentofdepressedfeelingsafterchildbirth(Carver&Gaines,1987).WomencompletedtheLOTandadepressionscaleinthelastthirdoftheirpregnancy.Theycompletedthedepressionscaleagainthreeweeksafterdelivery.Optimismrelatedtolowerdepres-sionsymptomsatinitialassessmentandalsopredictedlowerdepressionpostpartum,controllingforinitiallevels.Thusoptimismappearedtoconferresistancetopostpartumdepressivesymptoms.2.1.MedicalcontextsAgooddealoftheworkonoptimismandsubjectivewell-beinghasbeendoneinthecontextofmedicalsettings.Severalprojectshavestudiedpeoplehavingcoronaryarterybypasssurgery.Oneassessedpeopleamonthbeforesurgeryandeightmonthsafterward(etal.,1993).Optimistshadlessdistressbeforehand,and(controllingforpresurgicallifesatisfaction)optimistshadmorelifesatisfactionaftersurgery.Optimismaboutlifeappearedtoleadtoaspecioptimismaboutthesurgery,andfromtheretosatisfactionwithlife.AsimilarstudybyScheieretal.(1989)foundthatoptimistsretainedhigherqualityoflifeevenuptoveyearsafterthesurgery.Optimismhasalsobeenstudiedinthecontextofotherhealthcrises.Anexampleistreatmentforbreastcancer(Carveretal.,1993Womenwereinterviewedatdiagnosis,thedaybeforesurgery,afewdaysaftersurgery,and3,6,and12monthslater.Optimism(atinitialassessment)predictedlessdistressovertime,controllingforeffectsofmedicalvariablesandearlierdistress.Thus,optimismpredictedresilienceagainstdistressduringthefullyear.Astudyofheadandneckcancerpatientsyieldedsimilarresults(Allison,Guichard,&Gilain,2000).Patientswereassessedbeforetreatmentandthreemonthsafterward.Optimistsreportedhigherqualityoflifebeforetreatmentandalsoaftertreatment,controllingforinitialratings.Althoughithasbeensuggestedthatoptimismmightsetpeopleupfordisappointment(Schwarzer,1994;Tennen,&Afeck,1987andSnider(1993)foundthatoptimismpredictedbettermoodbeforebreastcancerbiopsy,andthisrelationshipdidnotchangeonreceiptofapositivebiopsyresultoraftersurgery.Anothermedicalcontextinwhichoptimismhasbeenstudiedisinvitrofertilization,aprocedurethathelpspeopleovercomefertilityproblems.Thestudyfocusedonpeoplewhowereunsuccessful(etal.,1992).Eightweeksbeforehand,participantsreportedtheiroptimism,distress,expectanciesforfertilizationsuccess,andtheimpactofinfertilityontheirlives.Twoweeksafternoticationofanegativepregnancytest,distresswasmeasuredagain.Oftheinitialvariables,onlyoptimismpredictedfollow-updistress(controllingfortime-1distress).Thisstudyfoundthatthemostoptimisticparticipantsweretheleastdistressedafteradisappointingevent,furthercontra-dictingtheideathatoptimistsaremorevulnerabletodisappointmentthanpessimists.Yetanothercontextinwhicheffectsofoptimismhavebeenexaminedistreatmentforischemicheartdisease.Inthisstudy(Irvine,Stewart,&Abbey,2001),lessoptimismrelatedtomoresymp-tomsofdepressionshortlyafterhospitalization.LoweroptimismalsoC.S.Carveretal./ClinicalPsychologyReview30(2010)879 predictedmoresymptomsofdepressionata1-yearfollow-up,whencontrollingforearlierdepressionandavarietyofothervariables.2.2.OthersettingsMedicalconditionsarenottheonlysourcesofstressinwhichoptimismhasbeenstudied.Caregiversareanotherhighlystressedgroup.OneprojectstudiedagroupofcancerpatientsandtheircaregiversGivenetal.,1993).Caregivers'optimismpredictedlessdepressionandlessadverseimpactofcaregivingontheirphysicalhealth.SimilarresultshavebeenfoundamongcaregiverspousesofAlzheimer'spatientsHookeretal.,1992;Shifren&Hooker,1995Otherstudieshavetargetedeventsthatmightbeviewedaschallenging,butarelesssevere.Forexample,startingcollegeisastressfultime.Atleasttwostudieshaveexaminedtheroleofoptimismamongstudentsadjustingtotheirrstsemester(Aspinwall&Taylor,1992;Brissetteetal.,2002).Optimismandothervariableswereassessedwhenthestudentsarrivedoncampus,andmeasuresofwell-beingwereobtainedattheendofthesemester.Higheroptimismpredictedlessdistressattheendofthesemester.Indeed,thesimpleprocessoflate-lifeagingisachallenge,confrontingpeoplewithavarietyofcircumstancestowhichpeoplemustadjust.ADutchstudyofelderlymenexaminedtheroleofpersonalityattheinitialassessmentasapredictorofdepressionacrossa15-yearfollow-upGiltay,Zitman,&Kromhout,2006).Optimismpredictedsignicantlylowercumulativeincidenceofdepressionsymptoms.3.Optimism,pessimism,andcopingIfoptimistsexperiencelessdistressthanpessimistswhenunderadversity,isitjustbecausetheyarecheerfulpeople?Thatapparentlyisnotthefullstory,becausethedifferencesoftenremainwhencontrolsareincludedforpriordistress.Thissectionconsidersanotherpathtodifferencesinwell-being:differencesincoping.Thewaysinwhichoptimistsandpessimistsdifferincopingresemblethedifferencesinbroadbehavioraltendenciesdiscussedearlierinthearticle.Thatis,peoplewhoarecondentabouteventualsuccesscontinuetrying,evenwhenthegoingishard.Peoplewhoaredoubtfultrytoescapetheadversitybywishfulthinking,theyaredrawnintotemporarydistractionsthatdon'thelpsolvetheproblem,andtheysometimesevenstoptrying.Differencesincopingthatcorrespondtothispicturehavebeenfoundinanumberofstudies(fordetailedreviewandmeta-analysisSolbergNes&Segerstrom,2006).Earlystudiesexaminedstudentreportsofsituationalcopingresponsesandgeneralcopingstyles(e.g.,Scheier,Carver,&Bridges,2001ndingthatoptimistsappeargenerallytobeapproachcopers,andpessimistsappeartobeavoidantcopers.Conceptuallysimilarresultshavefollowedrepeatedly.Otherprojectshavestudiedcopingstrategiesinspecicdifcontexts.Indeed,severalofthestudiesdescribedearlier,inthecontextofwell-being,alsolookedatcoping.Intheirstudyofcoronaryarterybypasssurgery,Scheieretal.(1989)assessedattentionalstrategiesaswaysofdealingwiththeexperience.Beforesurgery,optimistsmorethanpessimistsreportedmakingplansfortheirfutureandsettinggoalsforrecovery.Optimistsalsofocusedlessonnegativeaspectsoftheexperiencedistressandsymptoms.Oncesurgerywaspast,optimistsweremorelikelythanpessimiststoreportseekingoutinformationaboutwhatthephysicianwouldrequireoftheminthemonthsahead.Optimistsalsowerelesslikelytosaytheyweresuppressingthoughtsabouttheirsymptoms.Therewasalsoevidencethatthepositiveimpactofoptimismonqualityoflifesixmonthslateroccurredthroughtheindirecteffectofthesedifferencesincoping.Thestudyoffailedinvitrofertilizationdescribedearlier(Littetal.,)alsoexaminedcoping.Pessimismrelatedtoescapeasacopingresponse.Escape,inturn,ledtomoredistressafterthefertilizationfailure.Optimistswerealsomorelikelythanpessimiststoreportfeelingtheyhadbenetedfromtheexperienceforexample,bybecomingclosertotheirspouse.Relationsbetweenoptimismandcopingalsohavebeenexaminedamongcancerpatientsinseveralstudies.StantonandSnider(1993)foundthatpessimisticwomenusedmorecognitiveavoidanceincopingwithanupcomingbiopsythanoptimists.Cognitiveavoidancebeforethebiopsypredicteddistressafterwardamongwomenwithpositivediagnoses.Anotherstudyofcancerpatientsmentionedearlier(Carveretal.,)examinedhowwomencopedwithtreatmentforbreastcancerduringtherstyearafterdiagnosis.Bothbeforeandaftersurgery,optimismrelatedtocopingthatinvolvedacceptingtherealityofthesituationasonethatmustbedealtwith,placingaspositivealightonitaspossible,andtryingtorelievethesituationwithhumor.Pessimismrelatedtoovertdenial(reportsoftryingtopushtherealityofthesituationaway)andtogiving-uptendenciesateachtimepoint.Thecopingresponsesthatwererelatedtooptimismandpessimismwerealsorelatedtodistress.Furtheranalysesrevealedthattheeffectofoptimismondistresswaslargelyindirectthroughcoping,particularlyatpostsurgery.Anotherstudyofcopingamongwomenundertreatmentforbreastcancer(Schou,Ekeberg,&Ruland,2005)focusedontwocopingresponses:ghtingspirit(confrontingthecancerandtryingtobeatit)andhopelessness/helplessness(feelingasenseofgivingup).Theseresponsesmediatedtherelationshipbetweenoptimismandqualityoflifeayearafterdiagnosis.Thegreaterghtingspiritofoptimists(assessedbeforediagnosis)predictedbetterqualityoflifeattheone-yearfollow-up.Hopelessness/helplessness(reportedbypessimists)predictedpoorerqualityoflife.3.1.CategoriesofcopingAsreectedintheprecedingparagraphs,therearemanydistinctwaystocope,andmanydifferentwaystoassesscoping(Compasetal.,Folkman&Moskowitz,2004Skinneretal.,2003).Therearealsomanywaystocategorizethesevariousresponses(Carver&Connor-Smith,2010;Skinneretal.,2003).Perhapsthebestknowndistinction,madeveryearlyintheanalysisofcoping,isbetweenproblem-focusedcopingaimedatdoingsomethingaboutthestressoritselftobluntitsandemotion-focusedcopingaimedatsoothingdistressLazarus&Folkman,1984).Anotherparticularlyimportantdistinctionisbetweenengagementorapproachcopingaimedatdealingwiththestressororemotionsstemmingfromitanddisengagementoravoidancecopingaimedatescapingthestressororemotionsstemmingfromit(e.g.,Roth&Cohen,1986;Skinneretal.,2003Intheirmeta-analysisofoptimismandcoping,SolbergNesandSegerstrom(2006)crossedthesetwodistinctions,ttingparticularcopingresponsesfromvariousstudiesintothe4resultingcategories.Optimismwaspositivelyassociatedwithbroadmeasuresofengage-mentcoping,andwithproblem-focusedcoping.Optimismwasalsopositively,andaboutequivalently,associatedwiththetwosubsetsofengagementcopingresponses:thosethatareproblem-focused(e.g.,planning,seekinginstrumentalsupport)andthosethatareemotion-focused(e.g.,cognitiverestructuring,acceptance).Furthermore,opti-mistswereresponsivetowhatsortofstressorwasbeingconfronted.Optimismpredictedmoreproblem-focusedcopingwithcontrollablestressors(e.g.,academicdemands)andmoreemotion-focusedcopingwithuncontrollablestressors(e.g.,trauma).Thus,optimismpredictedactiveattemptstobothchangeandaccommodatetostressfulcircumstances,inwaysthatreectexibleengagement.Thepatternfordisengagementcopingwasgenerallyoppositethatofengagementcoping.Optimismrelatednegativelytodisengagementcoping,andtobothspecicsubsetsofproblem-focuseddisengage-ment(e.g.,behavioraldisengagement)andemotion-focuseddisen-gagement(e.g.,denial,wishfulthinking).Aswouldbeexpectedfromtheexpectancy-valueviewpoint,then,therelationshipofoptimismtoC.S.Carveretal./ClinicalPsychologyReview30(2010)879 copingdifferedfarmoresubstantiallybetweenengagementanddisengagementthanbetweenproblemfocusandemotionfocus.Insum,optimistsappeartodifferfrompessimistsinstablecopingtendenciesandincopingresponsesthatemergewhenconfrontingstressfulsituations(SolbergNes&Segerstrom,2006).Particularlynoteworthymaybethecontrastbetweenacceptanceandactivedenial.Denial(refusingtoaccepttherealityofthesituation)meanstryingtomaintainaworldviewthatisnolongervalid.Acceptanceimpliesrestructuringone'sperceptionstocometogripswiththesituation.Itshouldbestressedthatacceptanceheredoesnotmeangivingup.ThereisevidencethatresignationtoillnessmayactuallyhastendeathGreer,Morris,Pettingale,&Haybittle,1990;Reed,Kemeny,Taylor,Wang,&Visscher,1994).Acceptanceoftherealityofthediagnosishasdifferentconsequences.Byacceptingthatlifeiscompromised(butnotover),peopledevelopadaptiveparameterswithinwhichtolivethetimethat'slefttothem.Acceptancemayactuallyservethepurposeofkeepingthepersongoal-engaged,andindeedlife-engaged&Carver,20014.Fosteringandinterferingwithwell-beingTheconceptofcopingreadilybroadensintorelatedcontentareas.Asimpleextensionistowhathasbeencalledpreventiveorproactivecoping(Aspinwall&Taylor,1997),processesthatpromotegoodhealthandwell-beingratherthanjustreactingtoadversity.Perhapsoptimiststakeactivestepstoensurepositiveoutcomesintheirfuture.Thiswouldresembleproblem-focusedcoping,exceptthatitisintendedtopreventastressorfromarising.4.1.OptimismandhealthpromotionTherearemanywaysinwhichthismightoccur.Anexampleisseekingknowledgepertainingtoareasofpotentialrisk.Onestudyinvestigatedheart-attack-relatedknowledgeinagroupofmiddle-agedadults(Radcliffe&Klein,2002).Somemightexpectthatadultswhoareoptimisticwouldnotmakemuchefforttolearnaboutrisksrelatedtoheartattacks.Thosehighindispositionaloptimism,however,actuallyknewmoreabouttheriskfactorsthanthosewhowerelessoptimistic.Proactiveeffortsinhealthpromotionhavealsobeenexaminedamongpatientsinacardiacrehabilitationprogram(Shepperd,Maroto,&Pbert,1996).Optimismpredictedsuccessinloweringlevelsofsaturatedfat,bodyfat,andanindexofoverallcoronaryrisk.Optimismalsorelatedtoincreasesinexercise.Anotherstudyofthelifestylesofcoronaryarterybypasspatientsveyearsaftersurgeryfoundoptimistsmorelikelythanpessimiststobetakingvitamins,eatinglow-fatfoods,andtobeenrolledinacardiacrehabilitationprogram(Scheier&Carver,1992).Anotherproactivehealth-relatedbehaviorconcernsHIVrisk.Byavoidingcertainsexualpractices(e.g.,sexwithunknownpartners),peoplereduceriskofinfection.OnestudyofHIV-negativegaymenfoundthatoptimistsreportedfeweranonymoussexualpartnersthanpessimists(Tayloretal.,1992).Thissuggeststhatoptimistsweremakingeffortstoreducetheirrisk,safeguardingtheirhealth.Insum,optimistsappeartotakeactiontominimizehealthrisks.Theydonotsimplysticktheirheadsinthesandandignorethreatstowell-being.Theyattendtorisks,buttheydososelectively.Theyfocusonrisksthatapplytothemandrelatetopotentiallyserioushealthproblems(Aspinwall&Brunhart,1996).Ifthepotentialproblemisminor,orifitisunlikelytobearonthem,theyarenotespeciallyvigilant.Optimistsappeartoscanforthreatstowell-beingbutsavetheirbehavioralresponsesforthreatsthataretrulymeaningful.Itmightseemparadoxicalthatpeoplewhoexpectgoodthingstohappentakeactivestepstomakesuregoodthingshappen.Butexperiencepresumablyteachespeoplethattheirowneffortsplayanimportantpartinmanykindsoflifeoutcomes.Optimistsmaybemoredentthanpessimiststhattheireffortswillbesuccessful.Forthatreason,theyarequickertoengagethoseeffortswhenthereisaneedforthem.4.2.Pessimismandhealth-defeatingbehaviorsWehavecharacterizedoptimistsasbeingpersistentintryingtoreachgoalsandpessimistsaslesspersistentandmorelikelytogiveup.Thereis,infact,evidenceofgiving-uptendenciesamongpessimists.Someofthesegiving-uptendencieshaveadverseconsequences.Forexample,givingupmayunderlieexcessivealcoholuse,whichisoftenseenasanescapefromproblems.Pessimistsaremorevulnerablethanoptimiststosuchmaladaptivebehavior.Onestudyofwomenwithafamilyhistoryofalcoholismfoundthatpessimistsinthatgroupweremorelikelythanoptimiststoreportdrinkingproblems(Ohannessian,Hesselbrock,Tennen,&Afeck,1993Inanotherstudy,peoplewhohadbeentreatedforalcoholabusewerefollowedastheyenteredanaftercareprogram.Pessimistsweremorelikelytodropoutandreturntodrinkingthanoptimists(Strack,Carver,&Blaney,1987).Yetanotherstudy(Park,Moore,Turner,&Adler,1997foundthat,amongpregnantwomen,optimistswerelesslikelytoengageinsubstanceabuseduringthecourseoftheirpregnancies.Amorerecentstudyexaminedadifferentindicatorofgivingup:thedisruptionofnormalsocialactivities.Inthisstudy,breastcancerpatientsreportedillness-relateddisruptionofsocialactivitiesaftertreatment(Carver,Lehman,&Antoni,2003).Ateachassessment,pessimismpredictedmoredisruption,alongwithemotionaldistressandfatigue.Whenconfrontedwithahealththreat,pessimismledtoawithdrawalfromthesocialactivitiesthatareimportanttoanormalGivingupcanbereectedinmanyways.Alcoholdullsawarenessofproblems.Sometimes,though,givingupismorecomplete.Sometimespeoplegiveupnotjustonspecicgoals,butontheirlives,bysuicide.Itisoftenassumedthatdepressionisthebestindicatorofsuiciderisk.Butatleastonestudyfoundthatpessimismwasactuallyastrongerpredictorofthisact,theultimatedisengagementfromlife(Beck,Steer,Kovacs,&Garrison,1985Insum,asizeablebodyofevidenceindicatesthatpessimismcanleadpeopleintoself-defeatingpatterns.Theresultcanbelesspersistence,moreavoidancecoping,health-damagingbehavior,andpotentiallyevenanimpulsetoescapefromlifealtogether.Withoutdenceaboutthefuture,theremaybenothingtosustainlife.5.OptimismandphysicalhealthTheprecedingsectionsonsubjectivewell-beingandcopingincludedfrequentmentionofmedicalproblems.Asisimpliedbythat,muchoftheresearchonoptimismhasbeenconductedinthedomainofhealthpsychology.Someofthatresearchhasgoneontoexamineoptimismandphysicalwell-being.Althoughthisarticleisprimarilyaboutpsychologicalhealth,therearealsoreasonstoconsidertherelevanceofthistraitforphysicalhealth.Thegenerallineofthinkingunderlyingthisresearchisthatoptimistsmaybelessreactivethanpessimiststothestressesoflife;thelowerphysiologicalstressresponsesmay(overmanyyears)resultinlessphysicalwearandtearonthebody;theendresultmaybebetterphysicalhealthandevengreaterlongevity.Thissectiondescribesafewexamplesofthistypeofstudies(forbroadertreatmentandmeta-analysisseeRasmussen,Scheier,&Greenhouse,2009Carotidintimathicknessisanindexofatherosclerosisinthecarotidartery,aphysicalmarkerofthedevelopmentofheartdisease.Inonestudybearingonphysicalwell-being,intimathicknesswasmeasuredamongmiddle-agedwomenatabaselineassessmentandatthree-yearfollow-up(Matthewsetal.,2004).Greaterpessimismattheinitialassessmentpredictedincreasesinintimathicknessatfollow-up.Optimistsexperiencedalmostnoincreaseoverthethree-yearperiod.C.S.Carveretal./ClinicalPsychologyReview30(2010)879 Anotherprojectconcerningcardiovascularhealthexaminedpat-ternsofrehospitalizationaftercoronaryarterybypasssurgery(Scheieretal.,1999).Theneedforrehospitalizationisquitecommoninthispopulation.Inthisstudy,however,optimismpredictedsignicantlylesslikelihoodofrehospitalizationandalongertimebeforeitoccurred.Interestingly,thisstudyalsofoundthattheeffectsofoptimismwereindependentofself-esteem,depression,andneuroticism,suggestingthatitismorethantheassociationofoptimismwiththesevariablesthatisproducingtheeffect.Thissameconclusionisechoedintherecentmeta-analysisconductedbyRasmussenetal.(2009).Inthatmeta-analysis,optimismwasfoundtohaveasignicanteffectonhealtheveninthosestudiesthatadjustedforneuroticismandotherpsychosocialfactors.PerhapsthemostcompellingstudytodateonoptimismandcardiovasculardiseasegrewoutoftheWomen'sHealthInitiative(WHI).Thatwasalargescaleprojectdesignedtostudychangesinandpredictorsofqualityoflife,chronicdisease,morbidityandmortalityamongwomenacrossAmerica.UsingWHIparticipants,Tindaleetal.studiedover95,000womenacrossan8yearperiod.Allofthewomenwerefreeofcancerandcardiovasculardiseaseatstudyentry.Theresultswereclearandstriking.Optimistswerelesslikelythenpessimiststodevelopcoronaryheartdisease(CHD),werelesslikelytodiefromCHD-relatedcauses,andhadlowertotalmortalityduetoallcauses,acrossthe8yearsofstudy.Theadvantageduetooptimismrangedfrom9%forincidentcasesofCHDto30%forCHD-relatedIndividualdifferencesinhealingandimmunityhavealsobeenexamined.Inonestudy,menreceivingabiopsywerefollowedthroughoutthehealingprocess(Ebrechtetal.,2004).Thesamplewassplitintoslowhealingfasthealinggroups.Slowhealerswerecantlylowerinoptimismthanfasthealers.Inanotherstudy,olderadultsreceivedaninuenzavaccine;optimismpredictedabetterimmuneresponsetwoweekslater(Kohut,Cooper,Nickolaus,Russell,&Cunnick,2002;forbroadertreatmentofoptimismandimmunity,seeSzondy,2004).Otherresearchhasfound,however,thatunderveryhighchallenge,optimismrelatedtolower,ratherthanhigher,immuneresponses(Segerstrom,2005,2006b(2005,2006b)suggestedthatthereductionunderhighchallengemayectgreaterbehavioralengagementwiththechallenge,whichcansuppressimmuneresponsessoastoconserveenergy.Thephysiologicalstressresponsesandphysicalhealthoutcomesthatrelatetooptimismareimportantinandofthemselves.However,theyalsosuggestadditionalpathwaysbywhichoptimismcoulduencementalhealth.Forexample,neurophysiologicalsubstratesofstresssuchasnorepinephrineandcorticotrophinreleasinghormonehavebeenimplicatedinanxietydisorders(Brunelloetal.,2003;Dunn&Berridge,1990).Asanotherexample,myocardialinfarctiongreatlyincreasestheriskformajordepressivedisorderLesperance,Frasure-Smith,&Talajic,1996).Thus,differencesinphysiologicalreactivitytostressmaythemselvesresultindifferencesinvulnerabilitytopsychologicalproblems.Tosumup,theavailableresearchsuggeststhatoptimismisrelevanttobiologicaloutcomes.Onestudyevenfoundthatoptimismpredictslongerlife.Among900elderlyDutchpersons,thosereportingahighlevelofoptimismatbaselinewerelesslikelytodieoverthenext10yearsGiltay,Geleijnse,Zitman,Hoekstra,&Schouten,2004).Theevidenceonbiologicaloutcomesislessconsistentthanitisforself-reportsconcerninghealth(Rasmussenetal.,2009),butrelationsbetweenoptimismandphysicalwell-beingclearlydeservefurtherstudy.6.Optimismandresources6.1.OptimismandsocioeconomicstatusHealthpsychologyandthedomainofsubjectivewell-beinghaveprobablybeenthemainarenasforstudyingeffectsofoptimismandpessimism.However,notallresearchonthistraithashadthisfocus.Optimists'tendencytowardpersistentgoalpursuit,theiractivecopingwithstressors,andeventheirbetterhealth,canmakeitpossibleforthemtotranslateshort-termtendenciestowardapproach(ratherthanwithdrawal)intolong-termresources.Althoughtherehavebeenfewstudiesoftheassociationsofoptimismwithsocio-economicresources,theavailableevidencepointstowardcorrelationswithtwoindicatorsofsocioeconomicstatus:educationandincome.Inalargesampleofrst-yearundergraduates,dispositionaloptimismbeforestartingschoolwasassociatedwithasignihigherprobabilityofreturningthesecondyear(SolbergNes,Evans,&Segerstrom,2009).Thedropoutrateforpessimists(about30%)wasroughlytwicethatfortheveryoptimistic(about15%).Inasmallersampleoflawstudents,dispositionaloptimismbeforestartingschoolpredictedhigherincome10yearslater.Eachmeanitemincrementinoptimismatthestartoflawschool(e.g.,fromameanitemscoreof3to4)wasassociatedwitha$32,667incrementinannualincomeSegerstrom,2007Itisalsothecasethatsocioeconomicresourcesarelinkedtothedevelopmentofoptimismovertime.Inastudyalludedtoearlier,Heinonenetal.(2006)assessedtheparentalsocioeconomicstatus(anaggregateofeducationlevel,occupationalclass,andemploymentstatus)ofagroupofchildrenwhowereeither3or6yearsofagein1980.Thesechildrenwereagainassessed21yearslaterwhentheywere24and27yearsold,respectively.Therewasasignicantpositiveassociationbetweenparentalindicatorsofsocioeconomicstatus(SES)in1980andadultoptimism21yearslater.TheeffectofchildhoodSESonadultlevelofopimismpessimismremainedcantevenwhenadultSESwascontrolled.Thus,apoorchildhoodsocioeconomiccircumstancebreedspessimismlaterinlife.6.2.OptimismandsocialresourcesOptimistsarealsolikelytobenetinthesocialdomain.Forexample,astudybyBrissetteetal.(2002)describedearlierexaminedhowstudentscopedwiththechallengeofstartingcollege.Beyondsubjectivewell-being,thisstudyalsomadethepointthatoptimistsexperiencedgreaterincreasesintheirsocialnetworksacrossthesemesterofschoolthandidpessimists.Otherresearchhasalsofoundassociationsbetweenexpectingpositiveoutcomesinthefutureandhavingbroadersocialnetworks(MacLeod&Conway,2005Wenotedearlierthatpessimisticwomenundertreatmentforbreastcancerweremorelikelytoreportwithdrawingfromtheirsocialactivitiesbecauseoftheirtreatmentthanweremoreoptimisticwomen(Carveretal.,2003).Thisisarealproblem,becausesocialnetworksareveryimportanttowell-being(Taylor,2007).Interest-ingly,thereisevidencethatsocialnetworksandoptimismmayhavemutuallyreinforcingeffects:Segerstrom(2007)foundthatdevelop-inglargersocialnetworksovera10-yearperiodwasrelatedtoincreasesinoptimismoverthatsameperiod.Anumberofpeoplehavebynowcometocharacterizeoptimismasapositiveresourceforrelationships,bothforgeneralsocialnetworksandalsoforcloserelationships.Whydooptimistshavebettersocialconnectionsthanpessimists?Onereasonisthatoptimistsareeasiertolikethanpessimists.Studieshaveconrmedthatpeoplearemoreacceptingofsomeonewhoexpressespositiveexpectationsforthefutureandmorerejectingofsomeonewhoexpressesnegativeexpectations(Carver,Kus,&Scheier,1994;Helweg-Larsen,Sadeghian,&Webb,2002).Anotherstudyfoundthatactualsocialinteractionswithoptimisticpeoplearemorepositivethanthosewithlessoptimisticpeople(Räikkönen,Matthews,Flory,Owens,&Gump,).Inyetanotherstudy,pessimismamongmenwhowereabouttoundergocoronaryarterybypasssurgerypredictedreportsofhighercaregiverburdenfromtheirwives18monthslater(Ruiz,Matthews,Scheier,&Schulz,2006C.S.Carveretal./ClinicalPsychologyReview30(2010)879 Anothercontributortobettersocialrelationsmayderivefromthefactthatoptimiststendtoseethingsinthebestlight,perhapsincludingthingspertainingtotheirrelationships.Thismightmaketheoptimistmoresatisedintherelationshipevenifthingsarenotperfect.Indeed,arecentstudyofcloserelationshipsfoundthatoptimistshadhigherrelationshipsatisfactionthanpessimists,andthatthisdifferencewasmediatedbyperceptionsoftherelativesupportivenessoftheirpartnersSrivastava,McGonigal,Richards,Butler,&Gross,2006).Ofcourse,itmaybethatpartnersofoptimistsreallyaremorereadytobesupportivethanpartnersofpessimists,becauseoptimistsareeasiertolike(andthussupport).Thisstudycontrolledforthatpossibility,however.Evenwiththatcontrol,optimistsperceivedmoresupportivenessintheirpartnersthanpessimists.Evidencethatoptimistsperceivegreatersocialsupportthanpessimistsalsocomesfromothersources(e.g.,Abend&Williamson,2002;Trunzo&Pinto,2003Yetanotherreasonwhyoptimismrepresentsaresourceforrelationshipsmaybethatoptimistsworkharder(orworkmoreeffectively)attheirrelationships.Thiswouldbeconsistentwiththeirgenerallygreaterengagementwithhighprioritytasks(Geers,Wellman,&Lassiter,2009).Inastudybearingonthisquestion(Srivastavaetal.,2006),relationshippartnersrsthadaconversationinthelaboratoryabouttheareaoftheirgreatestdisagreement.Thenthecouplesratedtheirownbehaviorandtheirpartner'sbehaviorduringthatinteraction.Fromthiswascreatedanindexofpositiveengagement(beingagoodlistener,notcriticizing,tryingtounderstandtheother'spointofview).Aweeklater,thecoupleswereaskedhowwelltheconicthadbeenresolvedbythattime.Thefollowingassociationsemerged:Optimismpredictedpercep-tionsofgreatersupportivenessfromthepartner,whichpredictedmorepositiveengagementintheconictdiscussion.Morepositiveengagementinthediscussionpredictedbetterconictresolutionaweeklater.Theseeffectsoccurredintheindividual'sownreports,andalsointhereportsofthepartners.Finally,thebenecialeffectofoptimismonconictresolutionwaspartiallymediatedbyperceptionsofsupportivenessandbypositiveengagement.Oneyearlaterthecoupleswerecontactedandwereaskedaboutthestatusoftherelationship.Aboutathirdofthecoupleshadbrokenupbythattime.Men'soptimism(butnotwomen'soptimism)wasacantpredictoroftherelationship'ssurvival,andagaintherewasevidenceofpartialmediationbyperceptionsofpartnersupportive-ness.Thiswastheonlypartofthestudywithagenderdifference.Srivastavaetal.(2006)notedthatmen'ssocialsupporttendstobemoreboundupintheirpartners,whereaswomenhavesupportfrommultiplesources,andsuggestedthatthismayhavemadethedifferenceinpartnersupportivenessmoresalientandmoreimpactfulforthemen.Anotherrecentprojectexaminedtheideathatoptimistswouldhaveanorientationtorelationshipsthatfosterseffectiveproblemsolving,justasoptimistsengageinproblem-focusedcopingwhenunderstress.Thisproject(Assad,Donnellan,&Conger,2007)studiedmarriedcouplesacrossa2-yearperiod.Participantscompletedmeasuresofcooperativeproblemsolving,bothforthemselvesandfortheirspouses.Theywerealsovideotapedwhilediscussingdiverseaspectsoftheirrelationship.Raterscodedthetapesforrelationshipqualityandnegativeinteractions.Optimismwasassociatedwithbetterrelationshipquality,withlessnegativeinteractions,andwithhigherlevelsofcooperativeproblemsolving.Thisstudyalsoexaminedpredictionofrelationshipstatustwoyearslater.Inthiscase,women'soptimism(butnotmen's)wasacantpredictorofrelationshipsurvival.Amongthosewhowerestillmarried,optimismattime1alsopredictedrelationshipquality,evenwhencontrollingforearlierrelationshipquality.Insum,althoughtherearerelativelyfewstudiesoftheroleofoptimisminrelationships,whatevidencedoesexistisconsistentinindicatingthatpessimistshaveaharderroadthandooptimists.Giventheimportanceofcloserelationships(Kawachi&Berkman,2001;Uchino,2004),thisrepresentsyetonemoreareainwhichtheoptimistappearstohavetheadvantage.7.Doesoptimismhaveanydrawbacks?Theevidencereviewedintheprecedingsectionssuggeststhatoptimistshavesomehowfoundthekeystoarichandfulllinglife.Comparedtopeoplewhoaremorepessimistic,theyexperiencelessdistresswhentheyencounteradversity.Theycopewithstressfulsituationsbyremainingengagedinthegoalsandactivitiesthatthestressoristhreatening.Theyengageinproblem-focusedcopingwhenthereissomethingtobedone,andtheydisplayaccommodativecopingwhentheadversitysimplyhastobeendured.Perhapsasaresultofthesedifferencesincoping,theyalsohavebetterhealth-relatedoutcomesandbettersocialconnections,bothbroadlyandinintimaterelationships.Thesepropertiessound,totheWesternmindatleast,quiteadaptive.Optimistsseemtohavethekindoflifeweallwant.Somehaveasked,however,whetherthequalitiesthatfollowfromoptimismcanpotentiallyleadtoproblemsincertainkindsofcontexts.Considerproblemgambling,whichcancostlargeamountsofmoneyandcreateadditionalproblemsinworkandrelationships.GibsonandSanbonmatsu(2004)reasonedthatgamblingisacontextinwhichpositiveexpectanciesandpersistencemightbecounterproductive.Indeed,theyfoundavarietyofworrisometendenciesamongoptimists.Optimistshadmorepositiveexpectationsforgamblingthandidpessimists,andtheywerelesslikelytoreducetheirbettingafterpooroutcomes.Participantsinthatresearchwerenotpeoplewithactualgamblingproblems.Butthispatternsuggeststhepossibilitythatoptimistsmaybemorelikelytodevelopsuchproblemsthanpessimists.Anothersetofstudiesaskswhetherthepersistenceofoptimistscancreateproblemsbecausetheyfailtorecognizewhattheycannotaccomplish.Moresimply,perhapsoptimistsdon'tknowwhentoquit.Certainlytherearecircumstancesinwhichpeoplehavetorecognizethattheirgoalsarelost,andthattheadaptivecourseistoturnawayfromthem(Wrosch,Scheier,Carver,&Schulz,2003).Doesthepersistenceoftheoptimistpreventthatfromoccurring?Oneprojectonthisquestionstemmedfromthereasoningthatgreaterpersistenceshouldleadtodevelopmentofgreatergoalict,partlybecausecommitmenttomanygoalsmakespeoplespreadtheirresourcesthinner(Segerstrom&SolbergNes,2006).Twostudies(oneofthemprospective)foundthatoptimismdidrelatetogreatergoalconict.However,thisconicthadnoadversepsycho-logicalconsequences.Evidencefromthesecondstudysuggestedthatoptimisticpeoplebalancedexpectancy,value,andcostofgoalpursuitmoreeffectivelythandidpessimisticpeople.Optimistswerecommittedtomoremutuallydemandinggoals,buttheyweremorecientatmanagingtheconict.PerhapsyearsofpracticehadledtothisgreaterefOtherresearch(Aspinwall&Richter,1999)examinedpeople'swillingnesstodisengagefromtasksonwhichtheywerefailing(thetaskactuallywasimpossible).Inonecondition,therewasnoalternativetasktoturnto;inotherconditionstherewasanalternative.Whentherewasnoalternativetasktoswitchto,everyonepersistedattheimpossibletask.Whentherewasanothertask,optimismrelatedtofasterdis-engagementfromtheimpossibletask.Ineffect,optimistsgaveuponatasktheycouldnotmasterinordertoturntoasimilartaskthattheycouldperhapsmaster.Indeed,iftheyhadbeenledtothinkthattheothertaskmeasuredasomewhatdifferentskill,theyevenoutperformedthelessoptimisticpeople.Theseresultsparallelassociationsbetweenoptimismandgoaldisengagementandgoalre-engagementreportedbyothers(Rasmussen,Wrosch,Scheier,&Carver,2006).Thatis,whengoalsarepercievedtobeunattainable,optimistsdonotnditeasiertodisengagefromthosegoalsthanpessimists.Theydoreport,however,thatitiseasierforthemtonewgoalstovalueandpursue(seealso,Duke,Leventhal,Brownlee,&Leventhal,2002C.S.Carveretal./ClinicalPsychologyReview30(2010)879 Yetanothersetofstudiesdealswiththequestionofwhetheroptimismcausespeopletoseeonlywhattheywanttosee,andignorethreats.Theinitialevidencesuggestedtheopposite:thatoptimistspaycloserattentiontoinformationabouthealththreatsthanpessimists,providedthethreatisseriousandisrelevanttothem(Aspinwall&Brunhart,1996).Morerecently,however,LuoandIsaacowitz(2007)foundthereverseeffect.Otherstudieshavetiedoptimismtoanattentionalbiastowardpositiveovernegativestimuli(Isaacowitz,2005;Segerstrom,2001).Forexample,inonestudyoptimistslookedatpicturesofskincancersmorebrieythanpessimists(Isaacowitz,2005).Exactlyhowtointerprettheaggregatedinformationonthisquestionisnotclear.Itmaybe,forexample,thatoptimistsprefertoattendtopositively-valencedstimuli,butarequicktoencodethreat-relatedinformationwhenthatinformationisperceivedasbeingusefultothem.Alternatively,optimistsmayknowthattheyarealreadyengaginginhealthprotectivebehaviors,andsohavelessneedtogatherfurtherinformationaboutthedisease.Insum,theredoappeartobeatleastsomecasesinwhichoptimismhasdrawbacks.Itisnotclearhowcircumscribedthesecasesare,orwhethertherearemoderatorsthatservetolimittherangeoftheproblems.Thisdoubtlesswillremainatopicforfuturework.8.CulturalissuesThepicturedescribedintheprecedingpageshasbeenrelativecoherentandinternallyconsistent.Weshouldnoteexplicitly,however,thatmuchofwhatisknownaboutoptimismcomesfromstudiesofNorthAmericans,mostlyofEuropeandescent.Animportantquestionistheextenttowhichtheknowledgederivedfromthesestudiesgeneralizestoothergroups.Theinformationonthatquestionislimited,butsofartherehavebeenbothdifferencesandsimilarities(Chang,2002;Chang,Chang,&Sanna,2009OnedifferenceisthatAsiansseemtodistinguishmoresharplythanEuropeanAmericansbetweenafrmationofanoptimisticviewandrejectionofapessimisticview.Thereisnoconsistentpatternofoverallmeandifferencesinoptimismbetweencultures,buttherehavebeensomedifferencesinpatterns.Inonestudy,anAsianAmericansampleendorsedpessimismmorethanaEuropeanAmericansample;inanotherstudy,SouthKoreansendorsedpessimismlessthanEuropeanAmericans(Chang,Sanna,&Yang,2003).Thusfar,theevidencesuggeststhatoptimismandpessimismrelatetoqualityoflifeoutcomesinthesamegeneralwayacrosscultures(Chang,2002Thislineofinquiryislikelytobecomemoreimportantovertime.9.Canpessimistsbecomeoptimists?Giventhemanywaysinwhichoptimists'livesseemtobebetterthanthoseofpessimists,animportantquestioniswhetheroptimismcanbeacquired.People'slevelsofoptimismappeartobetrait-like,andthusrelativelystableovertime.Changecertainlyispossible(seeSegerstrom,2006a),butquestionsremainabouthowlargeachangecanreasonablybeexpectedfromapersonandhowpermanentsuchachangewillbe.Therealsoremainquestionsaboutwhetheranoptimisticviewthatisinduced,eitherbyinterventionorbystructuredpractice,hasthesamebenecialeffectsasderivefromanaturallyoccurringoptimisticview.Themoststraightforwardwaytotalkaboutturningapessimistintoanoptimististhesetoftechniquesknowncollectivelyascognitivebehavioraltherapies.Thelogicbehindthesetechniquesisthatpeoplesometimeshavepatternsofnegativecognitivedistortions.Certainkindsofnegativethoughtsfosternegativeaffectandleadpeopletostoptryingtoreachtheirgoals.Wewouldimaginetheinteriormonologueofthepessimistislledwithsuchnegativity.Thisclassoftherapiesaimstomakethecognitionsmorepositive,therebyreducingdistressandfosteringrenewedefforttowarddesiredends.Beliefsaboutone'sfuturewouldcertainlybeanimportantsubsetofthecognitionstotargetforchangeinsuchtherapies(foranexampleofthisviewpointappliedtooptimismseePretzer&Walsh,2002;Segerstrom,).Fromacognitivebehavioralview,thekeywouldappeartobetotrainoneselftothinkinthewaysoptimiststhinkandactinthewaysoptimistsact.Riskindetal.(1996)havesuggestedonemoretwistonthatreasoning,whichreturnsustothequestionofwhetherabsenceofpessimismisthesameaspresenceofoptimism.Specically,theynotedthatmuchofcognitivetherapyisaimedatreducingnegativethoughts(ineffect,reducingpessimism),andthatmuchlessisaimedatactuallyenhancingpositivethoughts(increasingoptimism).Adecreaseinnegativethinkingdoesnotnecessarilytranslateintoanincreaseinpositivethinking.Riskindetal.(1996)arguedfortheimportanceofactivelydevelopingapositiveperspective.Theysuggestedboththechallengingofbeliefsthatarenotonlynegativebutactuallyoptimism-suppressing(e.g.,Idon'tdeservegoodoutcomes)andactivelyengaginginrehearsingpositivestrategiesandpositiveoutcomes.Althoughsomeprojectshaveaimedspecicallyatincreasingoptimism,interventionsneednothavethatspecicfocustohavethateffect.Whenpeoplechangenegativeschemasaboutthemselvesandtheworld,orwhentheylearntodealmoreeffectivelywithstress,theymaygravitatetoamoreoptimisticviewoflifemoregenerally.Asanexample,Antonietal.(2001)testedaninterventionamongwomenwhowerenewlydiagnosedwithnon-metastaticbreastcancer.Themulti-modalinterventionthattheyimplementedwasanefforttoinstillarangeofstress-managementtechniques.Positivereframingwasoneelementinthebroadertreatment,butarelativelyminorelement.Nonetheless,thatinterventionprovedtoincreasewomen'soptimismscoresovertime,comparedtoacontrolcondition.TwootherstudieswereconductedbySeligmanandcolleaguestotrytopreventdepressionamongcollegestudentsatriskfordepressionSeligman,Schulman,DeRubeis,&Hollon,1999;Seligman,Schulman,&Tryon,2007).Thesestudiesalsoemployedmulti-modalcognitivebehavioralprocedures,aimedatteachingskillstodecreasenegativeautomaticthoughtsandincreasemoreconstructivethoughtsandbehaviors.Bothstudiesfoundevidencethattheinterventionreducedtheincidenceofepisodesofmoderatedepressioncomparedtoacontrolcondition,andthatchangesinpessimisticstylemediatedthosechanges.Wehavefocusedhereonchangesingeneralizedoptimism,butitshouldalsobeapparentthatcognitivebehavioralinterventionsoftenperhapsevenusuallytargetbeliefsthataredomain-specicratherthanglobal.Thesedomain-specicbeliefsincludedomain-specipessimism.Asnotedearlierinthearticle,condenceanddoubtcanexistatmanylevelsofabstraction.Generallyspeaking,changeawayfromdomain-specicpessimismshouldalsoreverberatebackintoreductionofmoregeneralizedpessimism.Presumablythatiswhygeneralizedoptimismsometimesresultsfromtherapiesthatarenottargetedtowardchangeinthattrait.Itisimportanttorecognize,though,thatitcanbeunwisetosimplysubstituteanunquestioningoptimismforanexistingdoubt,whetherdomain-specicorgeneralized.Therearecontextsinwhichpessi-mismmayfollowfromdemandingtoomuch.Thatis,sometimespeopledemandperfectionfromthemselves,hardlyeverseeperfec-tion,andasaresultdevelopdoubtsabouttheiradequacy.Whatapersonwiththispatternneedsisrealisticgoals,andpracticeinadoptingalternativegoalstoreplacethosethatcannotbeattainedCarver&Scheier,2003;Wroschetal.,200310.ConcludingCommentandFutureDirectionsAlargeandgrowingliteratureindicatesthatpeoplewhodisposi-tionallyholdpositiveexpectationsforthefuturerespondtodifcultyandadversityinmoreadaptivewaysthanpeoplewhoholdnegativeexpectations.Furthermore,optimismislikelytoconferbenetsinbothintrapersonalandinterpersonaldomains,evenintheabsenceofstress.ExpectanciesinuencehowpeopleapproachbothstressorsandC.S.Carveretal./ClinicalPsychologyReview30(2010)879 opportunities,andtheyinuencethesuccesswithwhichpeopledealwiththem.Therearesomewaysinwhichthefocusedeffortsandpersistenceoftheoptimistcangoawry;however,thesecasesarefewinnumbercomparedtothebenetsthatoptimismseemstoconfer.Optimismhasbeenlinkedtobetteremotionalwell-being,moreeffectivecopingstrategies,andeventobetteroutcomesinseveralareasofphysicalhealth.Theadvantagesofoptimismalsoseemtotranslateintothedomainsofinterpersonalrelationships:optimistsarebetterlikedthanpessimists,theybenetfromtheirnaturaltendencytoseethingsinthebestlight,andtheyappeartoengagemoreproductiveeffortinthesortsofproblemsolvingthatkeeprelationshipsalive.Giventheaccumulationofevidence,itisclearthatoptimismisanindividualdifferencevariablethatplaysacentralroleinhumanexperience.Fromapersonalitypsychologist'spointofview,thisistherealityofindividualdifferences.Fromaclinicalpointofview,however,theevidenceisastimulustolearnwhatwecanfromoptimistssothatthemechanismsandprocessesthatcharacterizetheirapproachtotheworldcanbetaughttopessimists.Todate,verylittlesystematicworkhasexploredinterventionstoassistpessimisticpersonstodealmoreeffectivelywithadversityintheirlives.Weknowthatthetraitunderdiscussionisrelativelystableovertime,andthatthereisageneticcomponenttothevariationsamongpeople.Still,evenifthisqualityisresistanttochange,changehasbeendocumentedincertaincontexts.Attentionneedstobedevotedtowhatcomponentsthatmightbeincludedininterventioneffortsandtostudytheeffectivenessoftheseinterventionsinconcretesettings.AcknowledgementsPreparationofthisarticlewasfacilitatedbysupportfromtheNationalCancerInstitute(CA64710),theNationalScienceFoundation(BCS0544617),andtheNationalHeart,Lung,andBloodInstitute(HL65111,HL65112,HL076852,andHL076858).ReferencesAbend,T.A.,&Williamson,G.M.(2002).Feelingattractiveinthewakeofbreastcancer:Optimismmatters,andsodointerpersonalrelationships.PersonalityandSocialPsychologyBulletin,427Ahrens,A.H.,&Haaga,D.A.F.(1993).Thespecicityofattributionalstyleandexpectationstopositiveandnegativeaffectivity,depression,andanxiety.TherapyandResearch,83Allison,P.J.,Guichard,C.,&Gilain,L.(2000).Aprospectiveinvestigationofdispositionaloptimismasapredictorofhealth-relatedqualityoflifeinheadandneckcancerQualityofLifeResearch,951Alloy,L.B.,Abramson,L.Y.,Whitehouse,W.G.,Hogan,M.E.,Panzarella,C.,&Rose,D.T.(2006).Prospectiveincidenceofrstonsetsandrecurrencesofdepressioninindividualsathighandlowcognitiveriskfordepression.JournalofAbnormal,145Antoni,M.H.,Lehman,J.M.,Kilbourn,K.M.,Boyers,A.E.,Culver,J.L.,Alferi,S.M.,etal.(2001).Cognitivebehavioralstressmanagementinterventiondecreasestheprevalenceofdepressionandenhancesbenendingamongwomenundertreatmentforearly-stagebreastcancer.HealthPsychology,20Aspinwall,L.G.,&Brunhart,S.N.(1996).Distinguishingoptimismfromdenial:Optimisticbeliefspredictattentiontohealththreats.PersonalityandSocialPsychologyBulletin9931003.Aspinwall,L.G.,&Taylor,S.E.(1997).Astitchintime:Self-regulationandproactivePsychologicalBulletin,417Aspinwall,L.G.,&Richter,L.(1999).Optimismandself-masterypredictmorerapiddisengagementfromunsolvabletasksinthepresenceofalternatives.andEmotion,221Aspinwall,L.G.,&Taylor,S.E.(1992).Modelingcognitiveadaptation:Alongitudinalinvestigationoftheimpactofindividualdifferencesandcopingoncollegeadjustmentandperformance.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,755765.Assad,K.K.,Donnellan,M.B.,&Conger,R.D.(2007).Optimism:Anenduringresourceforromanticrelationships.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,285Atienza,A.A.,Stephens,M.A.P.,&Townsend,A.L.(2004).Rolestressorsaspredictorsofchangesinwomen'soptimisticexpectations.PersonalityandIndividual,471Austin,J.T.,&Vancouver,J.B.(1996).Goalconstructsinpsychology:Structure,process,andcontent.PsychologicalBulletin,338Beck,A.T.,Steer,R.A.,Kovacs,M.,&Garrison,B.(1985).Hopelessnessandeventualsuicide:A10-yearprospectivestudyofpatientshospitalizedwithsuicidalideation.AmericanJournalofPsychiatry,559Brissette,I.,Scheier,M.F.,&Carver,C.S.(2002).Theroleofoptimisminsocialnetworkdevelopment,coping,andpsychologicaladjustmentduringalifetransition.ofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,102Brunello,N.,Blier,P.,Judd,L.L.,Mendlewicz,J.,Nelson,C.J.,Souery,D.,etal.(2003).Noradrenalineinmoodandanxietydisorders:Basicandclinicalstudies.InternationalClinicalPsychopharmacology,191202.Carver,C.S.,&Connor-Smith,J.(2010).Personalityandcoping.AnnualReviewof,679Carver,C.S.,&Gaines,J.G.(1987).Optimism,pessimism,andpostpartumdepression.CognitiveTherapyandResearch,449Carver,C.S.,Kus,L.A.,&Scheier,M.F.(1994).Effectsofgoodversusbadmoodandoptimisticversuspessimisticoutlookonsocialacceptanceversusrejection.ofSocialandClinicalPsychology,138Carver,C.S.,Lehman,J.M.,&Antoni,M.H.(2003).Dispositionalpessimismpredictsillness-relateddisruptionofsocialandrecreationalactivitiesamongbreastcancerJournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,813Carver,C.S.,Pozo,C.,Harris,S.D.,Noriega,V.,Scheier,M.F.,Robinson,D.S.,etal.(1993).Howcopingmediatestheeffectofoptimismondistress:Astudyofwomenwithearlystagebreastcancer.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPs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