Theories of personality development. - PowerPoint Presentation

Slide1

Theories of personality development.

1: Psychoanalytical Theories

Psychosexual

psychosocial

2: JEAN PIAGET AND COGNITIVE

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

3: Interpersonal Theories

Harry Sullivan

HILDEGARD PEPLAU

4: Humanistic Theories

Abraham Maslow

Carl Rogers.

5: Behavioral Theories

Ivan Pavlov

Skinner

6: Existential TheoriesSlide2

Theories of personality development

Many

theories attempt to explain human behavior,

health, and mental illness. Each theory suggests

how

normal development occurs based on the theorist’s

beliefs, assumptions, and view of the world. These

theories suggest strategies that the clinician can use

to work with clients. Many of the theories discussed

in this chapter were not based on empirical or

research

evidence; rather, they evolved from

individual experiences

and might more appropriately be called

conceptual models or frameworks.Slide3

1: Psychoanalytical TheoriesPsychosexual Theories of

SIGMUND FREUD:

THE FATHER OF PSYCHOANALYSIS

Sigmund Freud (

1856–1939)

developed

psychoanalytic theory in the late 19th and early 20th

centuries in Vienna, where he spent most of his life.

Several other noted psychoanalysts and theorists

have contributed to this body of knowledge, but Freud

is its undisputed founder. Many clinicians and theorists

did not agree with much of Freud’s psychoanalytic

theory and later developed their own theories

and styles of treatment

.Slide4

Personality Components:

Id

, Ego, and Superego

.

Freud conceptualized personality structure as having

three components: id, ego, and superego.

The id is the

part of one’s nature that reflects basic or innate desires

such as pleasure-seeking behavior, aggression

,

and sexual impulses. The id seeks instant gratification;

causes impulsive, unthinking behavior; and has

no regard for rules or social

convention.

The superego

is the part of a person’s nature that reflects moral

and ethical concepts, values, and parental and social

expectations

; therefore,

it is in direct opposition to the

id. The third component, the ego, is the balancing or

mediating force between the id and the superego. The

ego represents mature and adaptive behavior that allows

a person to function successfully in the world.

Freud believed that anxiety resulted from the ego’s

attempts to balance the impulsive instincts of the id

with the stringent rules of the superego. The accompanying

drawing demonstrates the relationship of

these personality structures

.Slide5

Five Stages of Psychosexual Development

Freud’s

based

his theory of childhood development on the belief

that sexual energy, termed

libido, was the driving

force of human behavior. He proposed that children

progress through five stages of psychosexual development:

1):oral

(birth to 18 months),

2): anal

(18 to 36

months)3): phallic

/oedipal (

3 to5

years),

4): latency

(5 to 11

or3)

13 years),

5): and

genital

(12-18 years

).

Psychopathology

results when a person

has difficulty making the transition from one stage to

the next, or when a person remains stalled at a particular

stage or regresses to an earlier stage. Freud’s open

discussion of sexual impulses, particularly in children,

was considered shocking for his timeSlide6

Trust vs. mistrust (infant)

Autonomy vs. shame and

doubt (toddler)

Initiative vs. guilt

(preschool)

Industry vs. inferiority

(school age)

Identity vs. role confusion(adolescence)Intimacy vs. isolation(young adult)Generativity vs. stagnation(middle adult)Ego integrity vs. despair(maturity)

ERIKSON’S STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was a German-born psychoanalyst

who extended Freud’s work on personality development across the life span while focusing on social development as well as psychological development in the life stagesSlide7

1: Viewing the world as safe and reliable; relationships as

nurturing, stable, and dependable

2: Achieving a sense of control and free will

3: Beginning development of a conscience; learning to manage

conflict and anxiety

4: Emerging confidence in own abilities; taking pleasure in

Accomplishments

5: Formulating a sense of self and belonging6: Forming adult, loving relationships and meaningful attachments to others7: Being creative and productive; establishing the next generation

8: Accepting responsibility for one’s self and lifeSlide8

2: JEAN PIAGET AND COGNITIVESTAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Jean Piaget (1896–1980) explored how intelligence

and cognitive functioning developed in children. He

believed that human intelligence progresses through

a series of stages based on age with the child at each

successive stage demonstrating a higher level of functioning

than at previous stages. In his schema, Piaget

strongly believed that biologic changes and maturationwere responsible for cognitive development.Slide9

Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development areas follows:

1. Sensorimotor—birth to 2 years: The child

develops a sense of self as separate from the

environment and the concept of object permanence;

that is, tangible objects don’t cease

to exist just because they are out of sight. He

or she begins to

form mental images.2. Preoperational—2 to 6 years: The child developsthe ability to express self with language,understands the meaning of symbolic gestures,and begins to classify objects.3. Concrete operations—6 to 12 years: The

child begins to apply logic to thinking, understandsspatiality and reversibility, and is

increasingly social and able to apply rules;

however, thinking is still concrete.

4. Formal operations—12 to 15 years and beyond:

The child learns to think and reason

in abstract terms, further develops logical

thinking and reasoning, and achieves cognitive

maturity

.Slide10

3: Interpersonal Theories

HARRY STACK SULLIVAN: INTERPERSONAL

RELATIONSHIPS AND MILIEU THERAPY

Harry Stack Sullivan (1892–1949) was an

American psychiatrist who extended the theory of personality

development to include the significance of

interpersonal relationships.

Sullivan believed thatone’s personality involved more than individual characteristics,particularly how one interacted withothers. He thought that inadequate or nonsatisfyingrelationships produced anxiety, which he saw as thebasis for all emotional problems (Sullivan, 1953)

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Five Life Stages. Sullivan established five life stages

of development (infancy, childhood, juvenile, preadolescence,

and adolescence), each focusing on various

interpersonal relationships

HILDEGARD PEPLAU: THERAPEUTIC

NURSE–PATIENT RELATIONSHIP

Hildegard Peplau (1909–1999) was a nursing

theorist and clinician who built on Sullivan’s interpersonaltheories and also saw the role of the nurseas a participant observer. Peplau developed the concept of the therapeutic nurse–patient relationship-Slide12

It includes four phases: orientation, identification,

exploitation, and resolution.

During these phases, the client accomplishes certain

tasks and the relationship changes that help the healing

process (Peplau, 1952).

1. The

orientation phase is directed by the

nurse and involves engaging the client intreatment, providing explanations and information,and answering questions.2. The identification phase begins when theclient works interdependently with the nurse,expresses feelings, and begins to feel stronger

.3. In the exploitation phase, the client makesfull use of the services offered.

4. In the

resolution phase, the client

no longer

needs professional services and gives up

dependent behavior

. The relationship ends.

Peplau’s concept of the nurse–client relationship,

with tasks and behaviors characteristic of each

stage, has been modified but remains in use todaySlide13

4: Humanistic Theories

Humanism represents a significant shift away from

the psychoanalytic view of the individual as a neurotic,

impulse-driven person with repressed psychic

problems and away from the focus on and examination

of the client’s past experiences.

Humanism

focuses on a person’s positive qualities, his or hercapacity to change (human potential), and the promotionof self-esteem. Humanists do consider the person’spast experiences, but they direct more attention toward the present and future.Slide14

Abraham Maslow (1921–1970) was an Americanpsychologist who studied the needs or motivations of

the individual

CARL ROGERS: CLIENT-CENTERED THERAPY

Carl Rogers (1902–1987) was a humanistic American

psychologist who focused on the therapeutic relationship

and developed a new method of

client centeredtherapy. Rogers was one of the first to use theterm “client” rather than “patient.” Client-centeredtherapy focused on the role of the client, rather thanthe therapist, as the key to the healing process. Slide15
Slide16

Rogers viewed the client as the expert on his orher life.

The therapist must promote the client’s self esteem

as much as possible through three central

concepts:

•

Unconditional positive regard—a nonjudgmental

caring for the client that is not

dependent on the client’s behavior• Genuineness—realness or congruence betweenwhat the therapist feels and what he or shesays to the client• Empathetic understanding—in which thetherapist senses the feelings and personalmeaning from the client and communicates

this understanding to the clientSlide17

5: Behavioral Theories

Behaviorism as a school of psychology grew out of

A reaction to introspection models that focused on the

contents and operations of the mind. Behaviorism is

a school of psychology that

focuses on observable behaviors

and what one can do externally to bring about

behavior changes. It does not attempt to explain howthe mind works.Slide18

IVAN PAVLOV: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Laboratory experiments with dogs provided the basis

for the development of Ivan Pavlov’s theory of classical

conditioning: behavior can be changed through

conditioning with external or environmental conditions

or stimuli. His experiment with dogs involved

his observation that dogs naturally began to salivate

(response) when they saw or smelled food (stimulus).Pavlov (1849–1936) set out to change this salivatingresponse or behavior through conditioning. He wouldring a bell (new stimulus) then produce the food, andthe dogs would salivate (the desired response). Pavlovrepeated this ringing of the bell along with the presentationof food many times. Eventually he couldring the bell and the dogs would salivate without seeing

or smelling food. The dogs had been “conditioned”or had learned a new response—to salivate whenthey heard the bell. Their behavior had been modified

through classical conditioning or a conditioned

response.Slide19

SKINNER: OPERANT CONDITIONINGOne of the most influential behaviorists was B. F.

Skinner (1904–1990), an American psychologist. He

developed the theory of operant conditioning,

which says

people learn their behavior from their

history or past experiences

, particularly those experiences

that were repeatedly reinforced.The following principles of operant conditioningdescribed by Skinner (1974) form the basis for behaviortechniques in use today:

1. All behavior is learned.2. Consequences result from behavior—broadly speaking, reward and punishment

3. Behavior that is rewarded with reinforcers

tends to recur

.Slide20

4. Positive reinforcers that follow a behaviorincrease the likelihood that the behavior

will recur.

5. Negative reinforcers that are removed after

a behavior increase the likelihood that the

behavior will recur.

6. Continuous reinforcement (a reward every

time the behavior occurs) is the fastest way

to increase that behavior, but the behaviorwill not last long after the reward ceases.7. Random, intermittent reinforcement (an occasionalreward for the desired behavior) isslower to produce an increase in behavior,but the behavior continues after the rewardceases.Slide21

These behavioral principles of rewarding or reinforcingbehaviors are used to help people change

their behavior in a therapy known as behavior modification.

Behavior modification

is a method of

attempting to strengthen a desired behavior or response

by reinforcement, either

positive or negative

.For example, if the desired behavior is assertiveness,whenever the client uses assertiveness skillsin a communication group, the group leader providespositive reinforcement by giving the client attentionand positive feedback. Negative reinforcementinvolves removing a stimulus immediately after a

behavior occurs so that the behavior is more likely tooccur again. For example, if a client becomes anxiouswhen waiting to talk in a group, he or she may volunteer

to speak first to avoid the anxiety

.Slide22

6: Existential TheoriesExistential theorists believe that behavioral deviations

result when a person is out of touch with himself

or herself or the environment. The person who is self alienated

is lonely and sad and feels helpless. Lack of

self-awareness, coupled with harsh self-criticism, prevents

the person from participating in satisfying relationships.

The person is not free to choose from all

possible alternatives because of self-imposed restrictions.Existential theorists believe that the person isavoiding personal responsibility and giving in to the wishes or demands of others.-Albert Ellis-Carl Roger

William Glasser