Cosupervisor Dr Petrus Choy Prepared for Dr Vincent Cho Prof Kimmy Chan Dr Thomas Man Prepared by Siu Mei Kuen Kanie 14007181G ID: 776076
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Chief Supervisor : Prof. Warren Chiu Co-supervisor : Dr. Petrus Choy Prepared for : Dr. Vincent Cho Prof. Kimmy Chan Dr. Thomas Man Prepared by : Siu Mei Kuen, Kanie (14007181G) June 16, 2017
Doctor of Business Administration VIVA Presentation
Ascending to the top:
What can female executives do to earn respect?
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Kanie Siu - DBA 2014
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(7) Quantitative Research Method to Test the Research Model(8) Revised Research Model and Hypotheses Development(9) Results – Statistical Analysis(10) Contribution(11) Conclusion(12) Limitations and Future Research
(1) Research Motivation(2) Research Gaps(3) Research Objectives(4) Research Questions(5) Conceptual Research Model(6) Qualitative Research Method to Identify Respect Schemas
Content
Slide3No. of female CEO of S&P 500 ???
(1) Research Motivation
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For S&P 500, 24 female CEOs, 4.8% (Egan 2015 )
In Hong Kong, only 3.4% of 233 Hong Kong listed companies have female CEOs (Haygroup, 2014)
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Ironically, better financial performance was found with companies having a higher proportion of female in top management teams (Krishnan & Park, 2005).
“Educational attainment and professional qualifications" are not predictors for promotion (Chow & Crawford, 2004).
Promotion is associated with gender and more favourable towards male (Chow & Crawford, 2004).
So, what is/are the factor(s) contribute to female executives’ career advancement/promotability? How can female executives ascend to the top?
Slide6Female traits may explain why female is less promotable (Eagly, 2007). Because of their femininity (communal traits) of female executives, there is a negative perception of female executives to assume a leadership role (agentic traits) (Broverman et al., 1972; Heilman et al., 1989). Female will also be viewed negatively if they present in a masculine (dominant) way (Eagly and Karau, 2002; Eagly, 2007).Thus, neither femininity nor dominance will result in an acceptable leadership style for female executive to attain a career advancement.To reduce prejudice and to be promoted, female executives can only adopt a third way i.e. by gaining respect (i.e. prestige strategy).
(2) Research Gap 1
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Dominance and Prestige Theory
These are the two strategies that can be adopted by executives in general to ascend to senior rank
(Cheng et al., 2013)
.
Dominance strategy
means showing behaviours of aggressiveness, powerful and assertiveness; and executives introduce fear through using force and intimidation (Cheng et al., 2013; Lord, De Vader and Alliger, 1986).
Prestige strategy
means
sharing of expertise,
skills and success
or know-how to gain respect
(Cheng et al., 2013). Executives who
show their
high-level of competence, generosity, and commitments can enable them to achieve status (Anderson &
Kilduff
, 2009).
Executives can earn reputation, recognition or influence from subordinates owning to their success, achievement, or other favourable attributes. The
admiration of these traits, behaviour, competence
will earn them respect (Clarke, 2011).
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Thus, female executives can neither adopt femininity nor dominance in their leadership styles. They have to opt for the prestige strategy and earn people's admirations and respect, to ascend to the top.
If respect is the predictor of promotability, female executives can learn how to gain respect to get a better chance of ascending to the top.
However, there is limited research confirming if gaining respect is related to the promotability of female executives.
Slide9As mentioned in the above, female executives can adopt prestige strategy to gain respect from subordinates get promoted (Cheng et al., 2013). The extent of respect that subordinates grant to leaders will probably be affected by the subordinates’ expectations of their leaders – these expectations are referred here as leadership schemas constructed according to Relational Schema Theory (Baldwin, 1992).
(2) Research Gap 2
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Relational Schema Theory
Focuses on rationales regarding the relationship between two parties – in this study, the female executives and their subordinates (Baldwin, 1992).
The perception structure of the relationship is derived through generalization from repeated similar interpersonal experiences (Baldwin, 1992).
Schemas are thus regarded as some systematic depictions of previous behaviour and experience that become one’s theory (Huang et al., 2008; Zajonc and Markus, 1985).
Schemas serve as the perception maps to assist both parties (the female executives and their subordinates) to formulate the
working models of their relationship
(Huang et al., 2008).
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In this regard, relational schemas could help subordinates form expectations about, and interpretations of, female executives’ behaviour, as well as beliefs about their corresponding responses (Baldwin, 1992; Clark and Reis, 1988).
Subordinates will observe the behaviours of the female executives to determine the extent of respect offer to the female executives.
By learning the respect schemas, female executives can earn their respect from subordinates, to get a better chance of promotion.
However, there is limited research on identifying what these schemas (expectations) are.
Slide12This study proposes that female executives can be promoted to senior positions in an organization by enhancing prestige through gaining respect by confirming to subordinates’ respect-related schemas. Thus, there may be some relationship between gaining respect (respect schemas) and the promotability of the female executives. It is proposed that these respect schemas are indirectly related to the promotability of female executives and that respect serves as the mediator of this relationship.However, there is limited research confirming if respect mediates the relationship between the respect schemas and the promotability of female executives.
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Slide13Female executives may experience discrimination under different conditions (Tharenou, 2001). Working environment counts. Female executives will be found ineffective when working in industries with a salient male hierarchy (Tharenou, 2001), and are expected to have a lesser chance in being promoted in masculine than in feminine industries (Garcia-Retamero & López-Zafra, 2006).Will dominance of males in the managerial level moderates the relationship between respect schemas and respect?
(2) Research Gap 3
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Understand the impact of male hierarchy is essential as it may affect the promotability of female executives (Garcia-Retamero & López-Zafra, 2006) and may allow female executives to consider if they should stay in the organisation should they like to ascend to the top.
Again, there is limited research on identifying the impacts of male hierarchy on these phenomena.
Slide15To find out if gaining Respect will lead to Promotability of female executives.To identify what Schemas will help female executives gain respect from their subordinates.To test if Respect serves as the mediator of the relationship between attributes for gaining respect (Respect Schemas) and the Promotability of female executives.To find out if the extent of Male Hierarchy will moderate the relationship between Respect Schemas and Respect for female executives.
(3) Research Objectives
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Is gaining Respect a predictor of female executives’ career advancement/promotability?What female executives can do to be recognized and earn Respect from their subordinates in order to enhance the chance of promotion?Is respect the mediator between the attributes for gaining respect (Respect Schemas) and the Promotability of female executives?Will Male Hierarchy have any moderating impact on the relationship between Respect Schemas and Respect, which leads to the Promotability of female executives?
(4) Research Questions
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(5) Conceptual Research Model
This study aims to test:
if
Respect Schemas
are positively related to
Respect
for female executives.
if
Respect
earned from subordinates is positively related to
Promotability
of female executives.
if
Respect
earned from subordinates mediates the relationship between
Respect Schema
and
Promotability
of female executives.
if
Male Hierarchy
moderates the relationship between
Respect Schemas
and
Respect
for female executives for the
Promotability
of female executives.
Slide18According to Clarke (2011), leaders’ traits, attitudes, behaviours, and values will engender respect from their subordinates. There are three types of respect, appraisal respect, identification respect, and recognition respect, as summarized by Clarke (2011). Yet, there is limited research that identifies how female executives gain respect.A qualitative research method was conducted to determine the attributes that help female executives gain respect from their subordinates. Qualitative research method was adopted as it helped to collect attributes for explaining subordinates’ experience with their female executives when they offered their respect in an incident (Fossey et al., 2002).
(6) Qualitative Research to Identify Respect Schemas
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Slide19Qualitative Research Method:Research method: Questionnaire with open-ended questions testedSamples: 20* convenience samples#Interviewees should have experience working with at least one female managerAnalysisGrounded Theory approach (Stern, 1980)Open, axial and selection coding procedures*The sample size for this qualitative study was found adequate. There were repeated attributes raised by the interviewees as the research progressed and when new categories or explanations stop emerging (Marshall, 1996)# Convenience samples but not random samples were used. A random sample is best to be used for generalizing the results to a population. In our case, as we need to understand the complex issues related to the behaviour of the female executives interacted with their subordinates, random samples may not be the most effective way to be adopted (Marshall, 1996).
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Open-ended Questions for the Qualitative Research Method:
Have you worked or are you working with a female superior?
Could you please reflect on one incident when you felt respect for this female superior? What happened? Please share your experience of this incident. How did this experience affect your work attitude and behaviours with the female superior?
Could you think of the appropriate words for describing the kinds of respect you granted to your female superior?
Could you please reflect on one incident when you felt disrespect for
the same or a different
female superior? What happened? Please share your experience of this incident. How did this experience affect your work attitude and behaviours with the female superior?
Could you think of the appropriate words for describing the disrespect you granted to your female superior?
Do you like working for a female superior? Why or why not?
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The attributes were coded and grouped under 3 categories: commendable personality, engaging work style, and caring and fair relations. Based on these categories, 25 statements were developed as the questions on how subordinates perceive their female executives in the quantitative research.
Slide2350 female executives
Subordinates of the corresponding female executive – total of 256 subordinates
(7) Quantitative Research Method to Test the Research Model
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Quantitative Research Method: Online survey (A)
Quantitative Research Method: Online survey (B)
Empirical Research to Test the Eight hypotheses
Slide24Online survey (A)An email invitation with the research purposes stated and the e-version of the survey questionnaire with a coded URL was sent to each of the 50 female executives# separately.Each participant was asked to return the completed e-version questionnaire (appendix 1) within two weeks and reassured of the confidentiality of her responses.
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The survey questionnaire for the female executives is composed of four sections:their career advancement history and promotion prospect,percentage of female in managerial positions, which is to measure the male hierarchy,the organizational citizenship behaviour of their subordinates towards other individuals, andthe respondents’ profile.
#Convenience sampling was adopted as
i
n our study, as we need to purposefully solicit female executives who
are in the middle level or above (excluding CEO) and who have 5 or more subordinates each for joining the research
(Fossey et al., 2002)
.
Hair et al (1999) suggested that samples sizes for EFA should be at least 100. I hoped to get at least 30 female executives respondents with 4 of their subordinates responded so that 120 responses could be obtained. As I could not guarantee 100% of responses from the interviewees, I solicited support from 50 female executives who have at least 5 subordinates each to participate in my research.
Slide26Online survey (B)An email invitation with the research purposes stated and the e-version of the survey questionnaire in the format of a coded URL were sent to the respective subordinate of each of the 50 female executives who joined the survey – a total of 256 invitations were sent.Each participated subordinate was asked to return the completed e-version questionnaire (see appendix 2) anonymously within two weeks and reassured of the confidentiality of his/her responses.The survey questionnaire for the subordinates comprises of five sections:whether the subordinates agree that the identified schemas reflect the behaviour of his/her female executive,about the level of respect that the subordinate bestows on their respective female executive,the level of trust of towards their respective female executive,the perceived level of ‘promotability’ of their respective female executives, andthe subordinates’ profile
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Slide27Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) EFA* was used to purify the 25 statements as identified from the qualitative research to a meaningful level. The EFA was conducted based on the 240 responses from subordinates interviewed regarding the 25 statements in the quantitative research described above. Finally, 15 selected statements# were grouped into three female leadership schemas.*Before conducting the EFA, it is important to test whether the variables are potentially inter-related and are affecting each other. It was found that the reliability test, Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test, Barlett’s Test of Sphericity were passed (refer to Appendix 3). #10 attributes were removed based on the following criteria: (1) attributes with factor loading less than 0.6 (2) cross-loaded schemas across two dimensions with the difference in factor loading less than 0.2; (3) attributes with a similar meaning; and (4) attributes with a meaning inconsistent with the rest in the same dimension.
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Slide28The three FLS identified by EFA are labelled as Dedication, Understanding (re-labelled from: Leniency), and Mentorship. Eigenvalues ranged from 1.122 to 7.06467.134% of total variance were explained.The three FLS have passed both the reliability test and the criterion validity test (refer to p.34, table 2).
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Slide30(8) Revised Research Model and Hypotheses Development
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Slide3348 out of 50 female executives and 240 out of 256 subordinates responded.Response rates are 96% and 94% respectively.The data have a nested structure, with all study variables being located at the individual (subordinates) level of analysis (level 1), while the subordinates were nested within supervisors (level 2). Regression analysis was used to test the potential relationships as per the eight hypotheses. This study employed a multi-level analysis using mixed-effects model with random level 2 component to test all of the eight hypotheses. Monte Carlo method (Selig and Preacher, 2008) was also used to test the mediation effect of respect for hypothesis 4 because the collected data are multi-level in nature.
(9) Results – Statistical Analysis
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Slide35In Model 2 of Table 3, the three FLS and Respect are found significantly and positively related:FLS-A, Dedication (β = 0.287, p <.001)FLS-B, Understanding (β = 0.109, p <.01) FLS-C, Mentorship (β = 0.253, p <.001)The three FLS are therefore the predictors of Respect. Thus, Hypotheses 1a, 1b and 1c are supported.
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Slide36From Model 4 of Table 3, it is found that the interaction effect of
Male Hierarchy (MH) is insignificance on the relationship between the three FLS and Respect:FLS-A, Dedication (β = -.002, ns)FLS-B, Understanding (β =.003, ns) FLS-C, Mentorship (β = .002, ns) Hypotheses 2a, 2b, and 2c are thus not supported.
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Slide37In Model 3 of Table 4, it is found that after FLS and MH are controlled,
Respect for female executives and ‘Promotability’ of the female executives are positively and significantly related :β = .370, p < .001Therefore, Hypothesis 3 is supported.
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Slide38FLS-A, FLS-B, and FLS-C are found to be positively and significantly related to Respect. By controlling FLS and MH, Respect is found to be positively and significantly related to Promotability.Indicated by a percentile confidence interval that did not include zero.Dedication is found to be positively and indirectly related to Promotability.indirect effect = 0.106*, CI [0.04, 0.18]Understanding is found to be positively and indirectly related to Promotability.indirect effect = 0.040*, CI [0.01, 0.08]Mentorship is found to be positively and indirectly related to Promotability.indirect effect = 0.094*, CI [0.04, 0.16]Thus, Hypothesis 4 is supported.
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Slide39Summary of Results1. Respect SchemasThree FLS are found to be positively and significantly related to Respect for female leaders (H1a, 1b and 1c are supported).The three FLS are labelled as FLS-A, Dedication; FLS-B, Understanding; and FLS-C, Mentorship resulted from the EFA. According to the Theory of Relational Schema (Baldwin, 1992), subordinates will engender respect to their female executives based on their observations of the respect schemas of their female executives. Thus, female executives can now learn how to gain respect from subordinates by adopting the three FLS identified in this study.
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Slide40FLS-A: DedicationMy supervisor is committed to her work.My supervisor is conscientious in performing her duties.My supervisor works efficiently. My supervisor is hard-working.FLS-B: UnderstandingMy supervisor adopts a hands-on approach, but never micro-managing.My supervisor is lenient to my mistakes and gives me the benefit of the doubt. My supervisor does not scold us when we did something wrong.
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Slide41FLS-C: MentorshipMy supervisor recognizes my ability and achievement.My supervisor praises my work performance.My supervisor encourages me to excel in my career.My supervisor does something extra to help me.My supervisor offers help when it is too much for me.My supervisor provides full support to me when required.My supervisor lets me know how I can improve my work.My supervisor stimulates me to think critically.
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FLS-A,
Dedication
is found to be one of the
Respect Schemas
. To a certain extent, this finding corresponds to the study of Clarke (2011) that, attributes like admirable traits and competence, which are covered by
Dedication
in this study, will gain female executives
Respect
.
Unlike those identified in the integrated model (Clarke, 2011), both FLS-B,
Understanding
and FLS-C,
Mentorship
are found to constitute two novel perspectives from the extant literature related to respect, and respect specifically unique for female executives.
Slide432. Respect Schemas, Respect and PromotabilityThe study supports that the Respect Schemas identified can lead to Promotability of female executives (H3 is supported) through the mediation of Respect (H4 is supported). Female executives can learn to earn respect and enhance the chance of getting a promotion.Female executives should therefore adopt the third way, by gaining respect through learning and equipping themselves with the three relational schemas of respect, in order to ascend to the top. Therefore, earning respect can enable female executives in middle management to break through the glass ceiling of the organizations and achieve upward mobility.
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Slide443. Male hierarchyThe findings of this study, however, do not support that male hierarchy will weaken the relationship between the three FLS Relational Schemas and Respect for female leaders (H2a, 2b and 2c are not supported). Male hierarchy does not have any effect in moderating the relationship between Respect Schemas and Respect for the female executives.
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1. Gaining Respect is a predictor of female executives’ promotability.
1. Is gaining Respect a predictor of female executives’ career advancement / promotability?
(10) Conclusion
2. What female executives can do to earn Respect in order to enhance the chance of promotion?
3. Is Respect the mediator between the attributes for gaining respect (Respect Schemas) and the Promotability of female executives?
4. Will Male Hierarchy has any impact on the relationship between Respect Schemas and Respect which leads to the Promotability of female executives?
2. Female executives can learn Respect Schemas i.e. Dedication, Understanding, and Mentorship, in order to earn Respect.
3. Respect is the mediator between Respect Schemas and Promotability of female executives.
4.
Male Hierarchy
will not have any impact on the relationship between
Respect Schemas
and
Respect
which leads to the
Promotability
of female executives.
Slide46In theoretical aspects, This study contributes to the behaviour theory of leadership by extending the notion of respect in female leadership context. This study is the first empirical study to identify female leadership schemas, namely, Dedication, Understanding and Mentorship, which will lead to respect for female executives.This study also examined the mediating role of respect for female executives in ascending to the top.
(11) Contribution
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Slide47On managerial implications,This study may inspire female leaders on how they can earn respect through Dedication, Understanding and Mentorship, that give rise to promotability for female executives specifically. As respect for female executives is found to be the mediator for the relationship between respect schemas and promotability, female executives can attempt to earn respect from their subordinates and thus, be able to break through the glass ceiling of the organizations and enhance their chance of career development.
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Slide48(12) Limitations and Future Research
LimitationsFuture researchFor practical reason, the sample size of the subordinate interviewees requested in the quantitative research was only five or above per supervisor. It would be better if future study could include all subordinates of each supervisor as the interviewees. This can reduce the biased selection of subordinates for participating in the research.This study only investigated if respect earned from subordinates will lead to promotability of female executives, though it is understood that average ratings of the subordinates can predict the performance of the team which is one of the factors that influences the promotion of female executives (Atkins and Wood, 2002). In addition, there is a common method bias as views for testing the hypotheses are only taken from the subordinates.Future research may consider to engage supervisors and peers of the female executives.Though this study has attempted to understand if respect from subordinates will lead to better chance of promotion of female executives from the perspective of female executives, the findings do not support the hypothesis.The data collected are only cross-sectional – only the likelihood of promotion in the coming three years could be measured at the time of the study. Future research may consider conducting the research longitudinally. Research findings could be more persuasive, if the data would consist of information regarding whether the female executives have obtained career advancement within the period of the study.
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Limitations
Future research
Apart from respect, there may be other predictors of promotability of female executives.
Future research may also test if other characteristics such as competence, social recognition, charisma leadership style would lead to promotability of female executives.
Percentage of male in the managerial level of the participating organizations was gathered based of the self reporting from the female executives.
Actual percentage of male in the senior level of the organizations participated should be used in future research.
Slide50Panel Chair, external examiners and guests are welcome to ask questions, give valuable advice, suggestions and comments.
Q & A s
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Appendix 1
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Appendix 2
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Appendix 3: Reliability and Sampling Adequacy of the 25 statements
Validity in its traditional sense is not an issue in GT, which instead should be judged by fit, relevance, workability, and modifiability (Glaser & Strauss 1967, Glaser 1978, Glaser 1998).
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Appendix 4: Hypotheses Development
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