Explore PharmacologyGraduate Studies in Pharmacology - PDF document

1 Explore PharmacologyGraduate Studies in
Explore PharmacologyGraduate Studies in Pharmacology applications of pharmacology.A colorized image of a sagittal section of rat brain with regions of separate TASK-1 (green)or TASK-3 (red) expression, and areas of overlapping TASK-1 and TASK-3 expression(yellow). The TASK proteins form channels in cell membranes and allow for the controlledmovement of potassium ions. TASK channels are believed to contribute to many Explore Pharmacology.In general terms, pharmacology is the science of drug action on biological systems. In itsentirety, pharmacology embraces knowledge of the sources, chemical properties, biologicaleffects and therapeutic uses of drugs. It is a science that is basic not only to medicine, butalso to pharmacy, nursing, dentistry and veterinary medicine. Pharmacological studiesrange f

2 rom those that examine the effects of ch
rom those that examine the effects of chemical agents on subcellular mechanisms,focus on the treatment and prevention of major diseases with drug therapy.Pharmacologists also use molecular modeling and computerized design as drug discoverytools to understand cell function. New pharmacological areas include the genomic and In general terms, pharmacology is thescience of drug action on biologicalsystems. Integrating knowledge in many related scientific disciplines,pharmacology offers a unique perspective to solving drug, hormone,This booklet provides you with a broad overview of the discipline ofpharmacology. It describes the many employment opportunities thatthey are advised to follow. If you enjoy problem solving, feel a senseand the potential of drugs to offer new insights into diseaseExplor

3 e career. ContractionContractionControlA
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+LNMMA-8-7-6 chemical agents on biological systems. It targets every aspect of the mechanisms forthe chemical actions of both traditional and novel therapeutic agents. Two importantand interrelated areas are: pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics. is the study of the molecular, biochemical, and physiological effects of drugs on cellulardeals with the absorption,distribution, and excretion of drugs. More simply stated, of how drugs act on the body while pharmacokinetics is the study of how the body acts ondrugs. Pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic aspects of the action of chemical agentsare applicable to all related areas of study, including toxicology and therapeutics.is the study of the adverse or toxic effects of drugs

4 and other chemical agents.It is concerne
and other chemical agents.It is concerned both with drugs used in the treatment of disease and chemicals that mayactions and effects of drugs and other chemical agents with physiological, biochemical,microbiological, immunological, or behavioral factors influencing disease. It also considersabsorption into the systemic circulation and/or its tissue disposition. Each of these areas isclosely interwoven with the subject matter and experimental techniques of physiology,biochemistry, cellular and molecularbiology, microbiology, immunology,genetics, and pathology. Pharmacology is the study of thetherapeutic value and/or G C G C G C G C G C G G G G G C T A G C T A T A T A A A T A T A ATP 3'OH 3OH 1. 2. Pol  CTP Pol  Y Famil y neuropharmacology É cardiovascular physiology É molecular biology É bio

5 chemistry É behavioralpharmacology É gen
chemistry É behavioralpharmacology É gene therapy É endocrinology É clinical pharmacology É chemotherapy É veterinarymedicine É systems and integrated biology É macromolecular therapeutics É neuropharmacology Écardiovascular physiology É molecular biology É biochemistry É behavioral pharmacology É genetherapy É endocrinology É clinical pharmacology É chemotherapy É veterinary medicine É systems andintegrated biology É macromolecular therapeutics É neuropharmacology É cardiovascular physiology Émolecular biology É biochemistry É behavioral pharmacology É gene therapy É endocrinology É clinicalpharmacology É chemotherapy É veterinary medicine É systems and integrated biology Émacromolecular therapeutics É neuropharmacology É cardiovascular physiology É molecular biology Ébiochemistry É behavioral

6 pharmacology É gene therapy É endocrinol
pharmacology É gene therapy É endocrinology É clinical pharmacology Échemotherapy É veterinary medicine É systems and integrated biology É macromolecular therapeutics Éneuropharmacology É cardiovascular physiology É molecular biology É biochemistry É behavioralpharmacology É gene therapy É endocrinology É clinical pharmacology É chemotherapy É veterinarymedicine É systems and integrated biology É macromolecular therapeutics É neuropharmacology Écardiovascular physiology É molecular biology É biochemistry É behavioral pharmacology É genetherapy É endocrinology É clinical pharmacology É chemotherapy É veterinary medicine É systems and Neuropharmacologyincluding the brain, spinal cord, and the nerves that communicate with all parts of thebody. Neuropharmacologists study drug actions from a number

7 of differing viewpoints.nervous system.
of differing viewpoints.nervous system. Alternatively, they may study drugs already in use to determine morethat are modified by drug action. Neuropharmacologists also use drugs as tools toneurobiological nature of disease processes.Cardiovascular pharmacologyconcerns the effects of drugs on the heart, the vascularregulating cardiovascular function. Researchers observe the effects of drugs on arterialinteractions between drug molecules and those of the cell. It is molecular biologyapplied to pharmacological and toxicological questions. The methods of moleculartechniques to understand how cells respond to hormones or pharmacologic agents , andhow chemical structure correlates with biological activityuses the methods of biochemistry, cell biology, and cellÒmachineryÓ of the organism. The bi

8 ochemical pharmacologist uses drugs as p
ochemical pharmacologist uses drugs as probes to neuropharmacology É cardiovascular physiology É molecular biology É biochemistry É behavioralpharmacology É gene therapy É endocrinology É clinical pharmacology É chemotherapy É veterinarymedicine É systems and integrated biology É macromolecular therapeutics É neuropharmacology Écardiovascular physiology É molecular biology É biochemistry É behavioral pharmacology É genetherapy É endocrinology É clinical pharmacology É chemotherapy É veterinary medicine É systems andintegrated biology É macromolecular therapeutics É neuropharmacology É cardiovascular physiology Émolecular biology É biochemistry É behavioral pharmacology É gene therapy É endocrinology É clinicalpharmacology É chemotherapy É veterinary medicine É systems and integrated biology Émac

9 romolecular therapeutics É neuropharmaco
romolecular therapeutics É neuropharmacology É cardiovascular physiology É molecular biology Ébiochemistry É behavioral pharmacology É gene therapy É endocrinology É clinical pharmacology Échemotherapy É veterinary medicine É systems and integrated biology É macromolecular therapeutics Éneuropharmacology É cardiovascular physiology É molecular biology É biochemistry É behavioralpharmacology É gene therapy É endocrinology É clinical pharmacology É chemotherapy É veterinarymedicine É systems and integrated biology É macromolecular therapeutics É neuropharmacology Écardiovascular physiology É molecular biology É biochemistry É behavioral pharmacology É genetherapy É endocrinology É clinical pharmacology É chemotherapy É veterinary medicine É systems and human illness.studies the effects of drugs on

10 behavior. Research includestopics such
behavior. Research includestopics such as the effects of psychoactive drugs on the phenomena of learning, memory,hormones. Endocrine pharmacologists are involved in solving mysteries concerning thenature and control of disease of metabolic origin.with other drugs, how their effects can alter the disease process, and how disease canalter their effects. Clinical trial design, the prevention of medication errors, and thetreatment of microbial infections and malignancies. Pharmacologists work to developchemotherapeutic drugs that will selectively inhibit the growth of, or kill, the infectious animal model approaches to best predict the efficacy and usefulness of new treatmentmodalities in human experiments. Results obtained at the molecular, cellular, or organunique to animals.Often confused w

11 ith pharmacology,sciences. It is the pr
ith pharmacology,sciences. It is the profession responsible for the preparation, dispensing and appropriateTHE NEW CENTURY PlasmalevelExtensive Metabolizer Time Poor Metabolizer (KCNQ1)(HERG) + LQT6LQT1LQT5LQT3IKr=I I NaNCNCNCNCNC caveolincaveolinROSMitochondrion pharmacology is a relatively new discipline in the life sciences. The termdrugs and their toxic effects wererecognized thousands of years ago. Asof pharmacological knowledge. They included rough classifications of diseases to betreated, and recommended prescriptions for such diseases. While other civilizationsThe introduction of many drugs from the New World in the 17 The term pharmacology comes fromthe Greek words pharmakon, meaninga drug or medicine, and logos,meaning the truth about or a rationaldiscussion. digoxigenin O Past a

12 nd Present experimentation on crude prep
nd Present experimentation on crude preparations. These experiments wereleaves. By the 18century, many such descriptive studies were beingconducted. How drugs produced their effects was, however, still amystery.century. MagendieÕs researchon strychnine-containing plants clearly established the site of action of these substancesproducing their effects. The work of Magendie and his pupil, Claude Bernard, on curare-the techniques and principles of the science of pharmacology.that pharmacology really began to emerge as a well-defined discipline. This processUniversity of Dorpat in Estonia. Long taught in medical schools, material medica wastraditional therapeutic uses of drugs. Buchheim, however, called for an independentexperimental science of pharmacology, involving the study of the physio

13 logical action ofdrugs. He established
logical action ofdrugs. He established the first institute of pharmacology at the University of Dorpat inAmong the students who received research training in BuchheimÕs laboratory wasOswald Schmiedeberg. In 1872, Schmiedeberg became professor pharmacology at worked in his pharmacological institute. His students later occupied 40 academic chairscentury, Paul Ehrlich conceived the idea of specificallyseeking special chemical agents with which to treat infections selectively, and is thusconsidered the ÒFather of Chemotherapy.Ó His work on the concept of the Òmagicchemotherapy.over twenty pharmacologists having received Nobel prizes. Their contributions includeThe field of pharmacology in general and the development of highly effective new drugscentury. This unprecedented progress has parallel

14 edmolecular biology, biochemistry,physio
edmolecular biology, biochemistry,physiology, pathology, anatomy, and the produce their effects, and how areHow well do the traditional/acceptedmechanisms of action for a given drug truly correlate with its biological effects, andare these mechanisms comprehensive enough to encompass all the effects of a drug? of biomedicine. The uniqueness of agents will be most effective in treating these conditions? DRG3 DISC1DISC2 ? ÒPharmacology encompasses all fields of biomedicine. The uniqueness of pharmacologyis that it takes a proactive approach to biological systems. As a result of its scientificdiversity, pharmacology is appealing because it can prepare you for any field. Best ofÒPharmacology is helping to create some of the fastest paced medical advances today. ÒIt allows me to diversify, go int

15 o different areas of research, which giv
o different areas of research, which gives me a jobadvantage over, say graduates in biochemistry, physiology or molecular biology.ÓÒPharmacology incorporates so many disciplines Ð biology, chemistry, genomics,ÒThe diversity of research that goes on here. There is a big staff; thereÕs an expert in somany fields. If you have a question aboutWhen asked if pharmacology differs fromaffirmatively. Those who consideredpharmacology to be different generallyÒNot only do we learn pharmacology, we must be proficient in many related fields Ðbiochemistry, physiology, molecular and cellular biology Ð in other programs.ÓÒI would be hard pressed to name a lab that doesnÕt use drugs, so what makes ourdepartment different? I think itÕs the recognition that drugs are tools for us Ð for both Pharmacology has a

16 greater emphasisthan other life science
greater emphasisthan other life sciences on eventuallyfinding practical applications forresearch results. opportunities in academic, governmental, and industrial organizations. ThePharmacologists who wish to pursue jointmedicine, pharmacology, dentistry,osteopathy, veterinary medicine, andnursing. Universities also offer researchpharmacology specialty.Institutes of Health, the Environmental Protection Agency, the Food and DrugAdministration, and the Centers for Disease Control. Government laboratories engage inbasic research to study the actions and effects of pharmacological agents. The FDAThe applications of pharmacology to health and to agriculture have resulted inphenomenal growth of the drug manufacturing industry. Multinational pharmaceuticalcorporations utilize large staffs of pharm

17 acologists to develop products and to Th
acologists to develop products and to The shortage of pharmacologists andthe increasing need for theirexpertise indicate that graduates willfind employment that allows them touse their own special skills andpursue their areas of interest. Career Opportunities also draw from the research expertise of pharmacologists. Such foundations offerSome pharmacologists hold administrative positions in government or private industry.orking in this capacity, they may direct or oversee research programs or administerresearch groups. Collaborating with Regardless of the setting,pharmacologists often work asmembers of multidisciplinaryresearch groups. College YearsSince pharmacology is not offered in most undergraduate programs, students areadvised to earn a bachelor of science degree in chemistry, one of th

18 e biological sciences,clearly and think
e biological sciences,clearly and think systematically and creatively, courses in writing,literature, and liberal arts are invaluable. Other undergraduatebiology, molecular biology, biochemistry, organic and physicalchemistry, mathematics (including differential and integral calculus),and statistics. If your college is among the increasing number ofschools offering an undergraduate course in pharmacology, you shouldalso take advantage of this special training opportunity.Hands-on experience to see how scientists tackle problems is helpful. If you areeither during the academic year or during the summer. Information about summer jobwork-study programs, or student research programs. Also, the American Society forpharmacology departments. Information on this program can beobtained from the Soc

19 iety office.degree is required. PhD pro
iety office.degree is required. PhD programs in pharmacology are located in If you would like to obtain a medical degree as well, inquiriesshould be made about combined MD/PhD programs. Earning a PhDdegree generally requires four to five years. Earning an MD/PhDdegree takes about two years longer.Graduate Record Examination. Assistantships andgenerally offered. Highly qualified students,While programs vary substantially, the PhDand research-based studies. Courses in cellular andmolecular biology, biochemistry,physiology, neurosciences, statistics, andresearch design are designed to broadenand deepen scientific backgrounds. Inaddition, a solid foundation in thepharmacological sciences is provided. Thismay include basic pharmacology, molecularpharmacology, chemotherapy andtoxicology, as we

20 ll as specific discipline andcardiovascu
ll as specific discipline andcardiovascular pharmacology, renalpharmacology, and neuropharmacology.program is, however, devoted to laboratoryresearch. The primary goal is to completean original and creative research study thatpeer review.Because emphases in programs differgreatly, it is important to investigateseveral programs, keeping in mind howThorough inquiries should be made into: ¥ Availability of training grants and stipends designated for graduate¥ Extent to which research efforts are independent or linked byPostdoctoral ResearchThis provides the opportunity to work on a second high-a scientist. The combination of graduate andto contribute new perspectives on a unique area ofresearch. Salaries and fellowships for postdoctoral new drugs, learning more about the properties of drugs alre

21 ady in use,investigating the effects of
ady in use,investigating the effects of environmental pollutants, using drugs as probes togenetic variation impacts drug disposition and efficacy.cellular receptors with which hormones and chemical agents interact. Through thiscoupling of this response to intracellular events has been made possible. New drugIdentifying the structure of receptors will allow scientists to develop highly selectivedrugs with fewer undesirable side effects. Out of this research have come a multitude of discoveries and achievements: advanceshypertension, congestive heart failure, and cardiac arrhythmias; more effectivechronic psychiatric disorders with far fewer unpleasant side effects than before. A second major contribution that is currently receiving renewed attention is the area of Achievements and New Fronti

22 ers interacts with its cellular targets.
ers interacts with its cellular targets. This field, which has experienced a major boost fromthe completion of the human genome project, offers considerable promise for theOver the next several decades, the knowledge emerging from pharmacological studieswill have an immeasurable impact on society. Major challenges include the developmentof drugs for the treatment of AIDS and other viral diseases, cancer, drug-resistantbacteria, and the rejection of organ transplants. A better understanding of the potentialtoxic effects of abused substances on the fetus and on the heart, brain, and other organsystems will evolve. Research on drug addiction holds the promise of developing newdifferences that may influence a personsÕ susecpfibility to drug abuse. Gene therapy is anew focus of pharmacological r

23 esearch. The possibility of developing
esearch. The possibility of developing gene products thatwould alter the course of a disease will open new horizons in the effectiveness and theselectivity of therapeutic agents. The effect of the chemical substances in theFinally, the discoveries in the area of pharmacogenetics will allow for a betterrequire pharmacologists who are not only schooled in scientific disciplines, but whochallenges for gene therapy. The diaphragminjection, however, the mice express dystrophin Editor: Christine K. CarricoArt Director: Phillip PayetteJose F. RodriguezMyron L. ToewsStephanie W. WattsLawrence P. CarterSue P. DucklesWilliam GerthofferJason M. HaughPaul A. InselStephanie S. Jeffreyoko OmotoWilliam M. PardridgeBianca ThomaeMargaret WarnerRichard M. WeinshilboumRaymond L. Woosleyuan Zhou www.aspet