CHAPTER rticulatory phonetics deals with the cat ego - PDF document

CHAPTER 2 In contrast, are pro- cant constriction in the oral and/or pharyngeal cavities during their pro-ters some type of articulatory obstacle along the way. Therefore, consonants are considered tion for consonants can ed by the Þ rst sound in [t], or [s]. For [t] the contact of the front of the owing along this median plane sounds. Only during whispered speech are vowels unvoiced. Consonants, on the other multaneous vocal fold vibration; they can be multaneous vocal fold vibration; they can be and [d] exemplify this relevant feature. Pairs of similar sounds, in this case differing only in their voicing feature, are referred to as cog-nates. Voicing features constitute the main rate the consonant cognates such as [s] from [z] or [f ] from [v]. The transcription of various ples of words in which these sounds can be heard are contained in Table 2.1. Vowels can also be distinguished from tic energy they display. Vowels are highly res-onant, demonstrating at least two formant areas. Thus, vowels are more intense than consonants; in other words, they are typi-cally louder than consonants. In this respect we can say that vowels have greater sonority of a sound is its The sagittal midline of the vocal tract refers to the median plane ConsonantsVowelsRealized InSymbol pay[]eattb]boy[]innt]toy[]apeed]doll[]egggk]coat[]att]goat[]father*father*m]moon[]moonmoonn]not[]woodwood]sing[]boatboat]think[]father*father*ð]those[]hophopf]far[]tietiev]vase[]mousemouses]sun[]boyboyz]zoo[]girl*girl* ]shop[[]beige[]winnerwinnert ]chop[]cutcutd]job[]aboveabovej ]yesyesw]winwin]when*hen*l]leapleapr]redredh]hop*May be regional or individual pronunciations. IPA Symbols (Wise, 1958) ch02.indd 16 /12/2007 8:04:40 AM 7/12/2007 8:04:40 AM ARTICULATORY PHONETICS Due to the production features of a special nority, certain consonants are also labeled so-Sonorant consonants are produced with a relatively open expiratory passageway. tion of the airstream during their production. The sonorant consonants include the nasals, the liquids, and the glides. The sonorants are obstruents, which are piratory airstream. The obstruents include the tween vowels and consonants. In other words, tic roles. This has often been referred to as the Òphonological differenceÓ between vowels and consonants (Crystal, 1987; Hyman, 1975). actually indicates this: reß ect-ing the tonal qualities that characterize vowels. Thus, consonants are those speech sounds that vowels. As such, vowels serve as the center of syllables, as syllable nuclei. Vowels can constitute syllables rst syl- or Vowels can also appear ed by or Although there are many types of syllables, the vowel is always the center of the syllable, its nucleus. A small group of consonants can serve as the nuclei of syllables. A consonant that These form and functional differences are summarized in Table 2.2.American English VowelsVowels are commonly described according to certain parameters (Abercrombie, 1967; Crys-tal, 1987; Heffner, 1975; Kantner and West, in the articulation. Example: front versus The tongueÕs position relative to the pal-Tense and refer to VowelsConsonants cant cant constriction Open soundsConstricted soundsalong sagittal midlineVoicedVoiced or unvoicedAcoustically more c consonants Features Differentiating Vowels syllabic consonants ch02.indd 17 /12/2007 8:04:41 AM 7/12/2007 8:04:41 AM ARTICULATORY PHONETICS PHONETICS a] instead of [a
] will change the mean-ing in General American English as the words sod [sad] versus sighed [sa
d] demonstrate.[
] a phonemic diphthong The opposition [jaw, versus [joy, exempliÞ es its phonemic value as a es its phonemic value as a a] a phonemic diphthong Oppositions such as [ versus versus mas], mouse, exemplify its phonemic CLINICAL APPLICATIONAnalyzing the Vowel System of a ChildOccasionally, the vowel system of a client may be re-in-depth analysis of the vowels produced may be necessary. Vowel systems can be analyzed using the logical disorder. He was a gregarious child who loved to talk and would try to engage anyone in conver-sation who would listen. The only problem was that cult, possibly more so for those who would pa-tiently and diligently try to understand his continuing Word ExamplesTranscriptionsanscriptionse
]
[]grapes[[d]table[[tbo][i]
[
]feet[[f
]teeth[[t
]three[[d
][]
[]bed[[bt]feather[[fv][u]correct[]shoe[ [ tu]spoon[[mun][]correct[]book[[b][o]correct[]stove[[do]nose[[no][ ]correct[]mop[[m ]blocks[ h02.indd 21 /12/2007 8:04:43 AM 7/12/2007 8:04:43 AM ARTICULATORY PHONETICS through the nose. The expiratory air pressure y air pressure p] and [b].Fricatives. Fricatives result when organ and so closely that the escaping expiratory air-stream causes an audible friction. As with sounds. Two examples of fricatives are [f ] and [v]. Some fricatives, referred to as [v]. Some fricatives, referred to as s], [z], [  ], and [ ] belong to the sibilants.Nasals. These consonants are produced with the velum lowered so that the air can pass freely through the nasal cavity. However, there is complete occlusion within the oral cav-(Ball and Rahilly, 1999). [ Organ of ArticulationPhonetic DescriptorExamplesLower lipLabial[p], [b], [m], [f ], [v], [w], [Tip of tongueApical[s], [z], [[s], [z], [ð], [r],1 [l]Lateral rims of tongue2Coronal[t], [d], [n], [ [t], [d], [n], [ ]Surface of tongueDorsum anterior portion predorsal[s], [z] central portion mediodorsal[ j ], [r] posterior portion postdorsal[k], [g], [1. The transcription used ofÞ cially by the International Phonetic Association for the American English cially by the International Phonetic Association for the American English ]. See explanation under rhotics.2. The term designates the apex and the lateral rims of the tongue. While the term of and Phonetic Description: Organ of Articulation coronaapex epiglottispredorsumdorsum dorsumpost-dorsummedio-dorsumpost-dorsum Figure Divisions of the Tongue ch02.indd 23 /12/2007 8:04:43 AM 7/12/2007 8:04:43 AM CHAPTER 2 Manner of ArticulationPhonetic DescriptorExamplesComplete blockageStop-plosive[p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g]Partial blockageFricative[f ], [v], [s], [z], [ ], [v], [s], [z], [  ], [], [ð]Nasal emissionNasal[m], [n], [Affricate[t[td]Gliding motion from a more closed to a more open positionGlide[w], [[w], [Lateral airß owLateral[l] ex blade or bunched dorsumRhotic[r] Phonetic Description: Manner of Articulation VoicingPhonetic DescriptorExamplesWith vocal fold vibrationVoiced[b], [d], [g], [m], [n], [[b], [d], [g], [m], [n], [], [ð], [w], [ j ], [l], [r]Without vocal fold vibrationVoiceless[p], [t], [k], [f], [s], [[p], [t], [k], [f], [s], [], [], [h]Table 2.6 Phonetic Description: VoicingVoicing.Voicing is the term used to denote less consonants of General American English are summarized in Table 2.6.Far more precision may often be neces-sary to describe how speciÞ c consonants are produced. However, this framework of organ of articulation, and voicing provides a fairly CLINICAL APPLICATIONWhen Organ, Place, Manner, and Voicing Are Not EnoughIn analyzing the articulatory requisites for the realiza-y requisites for the realiza- ], we Þ nd that it can be describedÑaccording to voicing, articulatory organ, place, and mannerÑas a voiceless coronal-prepalatal fricative. Although that is a generally satisfactory phonetic description, an-scribing such an additional feature becomes necessary ch02.indd 26 /12/2007 8:04:45 AM 7/12/2007 8:04:45 AM ARTICULATORY PHONETICS sify the consonants of General American En-organ, place, and manner..p] voiceless bilabial stop-plosive (Because both organ and place of articu-respectively, one should actually say labio-labial. However, the term , the term b] voiced bilabial stop-plosivestop-plosivet] voiceless coronal-alveolar stop-plosivestop-plosived] voiced coronal-alveolar stop-plosivestop-plosivek] voiceless postdorsal-velar stop-plosivestop-plosive] voiced postdorsal-velar stop-plosivestop-plosivef ] voiceless labio-dental fricativefricativev] voiced labio-dental fricativefricatives] voiceless apico-alveolar or predorsal-voiceless apico-alveolar or predorsal-s] (and [z]) can be produced in one of two ways: with the tongue tip up (i.e., as apico-alveolar fricative [sibilant]) or with the tongue tip resting behind the lower incisors (i.e., predorsal-alveolar fricative [sibilant]).[z] voiced apico-alveolar or predorsal-voiced apico-alveolar or predorsal- ] voiceless coronal-prepalatal or coronal-voiceless coronal-prepalatal or coronal- ] voiced coronal-prepalatal or coronal-voiced coronal-prepalatal or coronal-] voiceless apico-dental or interdental The [[ð] are typically produced with either the tongue tip resting be-hind the upper incisors (i.e., apico-hind the upper incisors (i.e., apico-ð] voiced apico-dental or interdental voiced apico-dental or interdental m] voiced bilabial nasalnasaln] voiced coronal-alveolar nasalnasal] voiced postdorsal-velar nasalnasalw] voiced labial-velar glide or approximantvoiced labial-velar glide or approximant] voiceless labial-velar fricative (IPA, A, j ] voiced mediodorsal-mediopalatal glide glide l] voiced apico-alveolar lateral or lateral voiced apico-alveolar lateral or lateral r] voiced mediodorsal-mediopalatal rhotic exed), ofÞ cially [ Here, the term refers to the under- refers to the under-h] voiceless unlocalized open consonant Although this sound is sometimes clas- ed as a laryngeal or glottal fricative, normally no constriction at the laryn-geal, pharyngeal, or oral levels. See yngeal, or oral levels. See h] production in General American English.[ ] voiceless coronal-alveolar stop portion voiceless coronal-alveolar stop portion ] voiced coronal-alveolar stop portion 1. The organ, place, manner, and voicing features are stein (1960) and Kantner and West (1960). These features are seen as descriptive and may, therefore, vary somewhat from speaker to speaker. ch02.indd 27 /12/2007 8:04:46 AM 7/12/2007 8:04:46 AM ARTICULATORY PHONETICS one speech sound becomes similar, sometimes of a soundÕs phonetic constituents; that is, a sound may change its organ, place, manner, tory inß uence of another sound. Assimilation of normal speech production and are by no means restricted to developing speech in come more alike, assimilatory processes are harmony processes. and degrees of as-similatory processes. In regard to the different types of assimilatory processes, the following 1. Assimilatory processes modifying directly (or If at least one other segment remote (or (Heffner, 1975).noted in the results of childrenÕs articulation s articulation mp
n]
[mb
n]The voiced [m] impacts the normally voice-] impacts the normally voice-ÒskunkÓ [skk]
[stk]The organ and place of articulation for [s] in-ß uence the stop-plosive, changing it from a postdorsal-velar to a coronal-alveolar..jlo]
[llo]Organ, place, and manner of articulation are impacted when the [j] at the beginning of the word becomes identical to the following [l].ÒtelephoneÓ [tl fon]
[td fon]Manner of articulation is impacted when the l] is changed from a lateral to a stop-plosive, t] at the beginning of the word. 2. progressive or regressive. In progressive assimilation, a sound uences a following sound. This (Crystal, 1987; Ladefoged, 2006). The previ- and and the remote assimilation for are examples of progressive assimi- u-In regressive assimilation, a sound seg- uences a preceding sound. If Òis sheÓ uences a preceding sound. If Òis sheÓ
z i
z i
i
is] into [ ], regressive assimilation is noted. Regressive assimilations are also known as anticipatory as-similations (Crystal, 1987; Ladefoged, 2006).Progressiveessivea
skrim]
[a
strim]Organ and place of articulation for [ u-stop-plosive production: This is progressive tl v
n]
[td v
n]Manner of articulation is impacted when t] impacts the following [l], changing it from a lateral to a stop-plosive: This is progressive remote assimilation.Regressiveessivepmk
n]
[pk
n]Organ and place of articulation of [ u- ch02.indd 29 /12/2007 8:04:46 AM 7/12/2007 8:04:46 AM CHAPTER 2 mit] is [m]; that is, [m] is the syllable releasing sound. The coda, or syllable arresting sound, of is []. This applies also to consonant blends is is skr], its peak is [], and the coda [tt]. Not all tu de
] lack a coda, whereas off [f] does not have an onset. The number of seg-ments that an onset or a coda may contain is regulated by rules of the language in question. General American English syllables can have one to three segments in an onset (ray, stay, stray) and one to four segments in a coda (sit, sits, sixth [s sixths [s(Carr, 1999). Therefore, in or Ex- Ex-du], glee [li], or the Þ rst syllable of reboundboundri band]. Syllables that do have codas are called closed or such as in such as in stp] or the Þ rst syllable in [w c syllable structures is of-acteristics of children. However, they do seem childÕs Þ rst words consist typically of open b] for ball or [m
] for milk. If children start to produce closed syllables, they usually contain only single-segment codas. Similarly, two-syllable words at this stage of development consist usually of open syllables (e.g., Ingram, 1976; Menn, 1971; Velten, 1943; Vihman, Ferguson, ihman, Ferguson, be
bi] for baby or [ are examples.tory or phonological disorders. Sometimes, picture of the childÕs articulatory capabilities at least three circumstances: (1) the an utterance contains, (2) the (open versus closed), and (3) the degree of syllable stress (stressed or unstressed) (Flem-ing, 1971; Kent, 1982). Generally, fewer syl- c target sounds. nal sound positions within words. rst glance, it may seem as if initial could be related to the syllable onset, medial to syl- nal to syllable coda. However, may be used in an articulation test to may be used in an articulation test to d] sound, while the word bathtub is used to test is used to test ] and [t] sounds. The elici-tation of the word pajamas tests [d] medially. From these examples, it appears that medial indicates anything between the beginning ÒmedialÓ positions? LetÕs examine the syllable s examine the syllable w
n-do] target [d]1st syllable stressed onset-peak-coda2nd syllable unstressed onset-peakonset-peakb-tb] target [[1st syllable stressed onset-peak-coda2nd syllable unstressed onset-peak-codaonset-peak-codap dm z] target [1st syllable unstressed onset-peak2nd syllable stressed onset-peak3rd syllable unstressed onset-peak-codaonset-peak-codawin-dow is actually the onset of an unstressed, open ch02.indd 32 /12/2007 8:04:47 AM 7/12/2007 8:04:47 AM ARTICULATORY PHONETICS a. fricatives and affricatesb. stop-plosivesc. all voiced consonantsd. nasals, liquids, and glidesnasals, liquids, and glidesa. high-front vowel that is unrounded and b. mid-front vowel that is unrounded and c. high-front vowel that is unrounded and d. high-back vowel that is unrounded and The consonant [l] is described phonetically as a. voiced apico-alveolar lateral approximantb. voiced coronal-alveolar glidec. voiced predorsal-alveolar lateral d. none of the abovenone of the above]b. [s]c. [z]d. [  ]6. A very young child says [ This is a. regressive phonemic assimilationb. progressive phonemic assimilationc. regressive phonetic similituderegressive phonetic similituden
ni] for noisy. This is a. progressive contact phonemic assimilationb. regressive contact phonemic assimilationc. progressive remote phonemic assimilationd. progressive remote phonetic similitudeprogressive remote phonetic similitudeb. [itt]c. [it]d. none of the aboveIf you were testing [s] in the medial position, WEBSITES www.uiowa.edu/~acadtech/phonetics/about.htmlThis website provides an animated articulatory dia-scription of how the sound is produced. It seems to be very user-friendly. Some of the terminology is used for all tongue placements and the terms and are descriptors for pre-, medio-, and www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=441666 nitions of the though the tongue as organ of articulation is not nitions and nes webpage. Several links are provided, for example, to the International Phonetic Alphabet. Other links en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vowel and nitions of the vowel and consonant concepts as well as many ch02.indd 35 /12/2007 8:04:49 AM 7/12/2007 8:04:49 AM When you have Þ nished this chapter, you should be able to: ne centering diphthongs. ch02.indd 14 /12/2007 8:04:38 AM 7/12/2007 8:04:38 AM