Kaan Yücel M.D., - PowerPoint Presentation

Slide1

  Kaan Yücel M.D., Ph.D. 13. 15.September. 2011 Thursday 20. September. 2011 Tuesday

Terminology in anatomyGeneral information on the systems

Slide2

Terminology in anatomy

It

is

important

for

medical

personnel

to

have

a

sound

knowledge

and

understanding

of

the

basic

anatomic

terms

.

The

accurate

use

of

anatomic

terms

by

medical

personnel

enables

them

to

communicate

with

their

colleagues

both

nationally

and

internationally

.

Without

anatomic

terms

,

one

cannot

accurately

discuss

or

record

the

abnormal

functions

of

joints

,

the

actions

of

muscles

,

the

alteration

of

position

of

organs

,

or

the

exact

location

of

swellings

or

tumors

.

Slide3

Anatomical terms are descriptive terms standardized in an international reference guide, Terminologia Anatomica (TA).TA- International Anatomical Terminology

C

reated

by the Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology and approved by the International Federation of Associations of Anatomists,

the

most

recent

(6th)

edition

was

published in 1998.

Slide4

Many anatomical terms have both Latin and Greek

equivalents

.

Thus

the tongue is lingua (L.) and

glossa

(

Gk

), and these are the basis of such terms as lingual artery and glossopharyngeal nerve.

Slide5

Various

adjectives

,

arranged

as

pairs

of

opposites

,

describe

the

relationship

of

parts

of

the

body

or

compare

the

position

of

two

structures

relative

to

each

other

.

Anatomical

directional

terms

are

based

on

the

body in

the

anatomical

position

Four

anatomical

planes

divide

the

body,

and

sections

divide

the

planes

into

visually

useful

and

descriptive

parts

.

Slide6

Terms

Related

to

Position

All

descriptions

of

the

human

body

are

based

on

th

anatomic

position

.

The

various

parts

of

the

body

are

then

described

in

relation

to

certain

imaginary

planes

.

Slide7

Median Sagittal PlaneThis is a vertical plane passing through the center of the body, dividing it into equal right and left halves. .

Slide8

Coronal PlanesImaginary vertical planes at right angles to the median plane.Horizontal, or Transverse,or Axial PlanesAt right angles to both the median and the coronal planes.

Slide9

Slide10

Anatomical terms are specific for comparisons made in the anatomical position, or with reference to the anatomical planes:Superior refers to a structure that is nearer the vertex, the topmost point of the cranium (Mediev. L., skull). Inferior refers to a structure that is situated nearer the sole of the foot.

Slide11

Cranial relates to the cranium and is a useful directional term, meaning toward the head or cranium. Caudal (L. cauda, tail) is a useful directional term that means toward the feet or tail region, represented in humans by the coccyx (tail bone), the small bone at the inferior (caudal) end of the vertebral column.

Slide12

Posterior (dorsal) denotes the back surface of the body or nearer to the back.Anterior (ventral) denotes the front surface of the body.Rostral is often used instead of anterior when describing parts of the brain; it means toward the rostrum (L. for beak). To describe the relationship of two structures, one is said to be anterior or posterior to the other insofar as it is closer to the anterior or posterior body surface.

Slide13

Slide14

Medial

is

used

to

indicate

that

a

structure

is

nearer

to

the

median

plane

of

the

body.

For

example

,

the

5th

digit

of

the

hand

(

little

finger

) is

medial

to

the

other

digits

.

Lateral

stipulates

that

a

structure

is

farther

away

from

the

median

plane

.

The

1st

digit

of

the

hand

(

thumb

) is

lateral

to

the

other

digits

.

Dorsum

usually

refers

to

the

superior

aspect

of

any

part

that

protrudes

anteriorly

from

the

body,

such

as

the

dorsum

of

the

tongue

,

nose

, penis,

or

foot

Slide15

.

Slide16

Combined terms describe intermediate positional arrangements: inferomedial means nearer to the feet and median plane—for example, superolateral means nearer to the head and farther from the median plane.

Slide17

Other terms of relationship and comparisons are independent of the anatomical position or the anatomical planes, relating primarily to the body's surface or its central core:Superficial, intermediate, and deep (Lat. Profundus, profunda) describe the position of structures relative to the surface of the body or the relationship of one structure to another underlying or overlying structure.External means outside of or farther from the center of an organ or cavity, while internal means inside or closer to the center, independent of direction.

Slide18

Other terms of relationship and comparisons are independent of the anatomical position or the anatomical planes, relating primarily to the body's surface or its central core:External means outside of or farther from the center of an organ or cavity, while internal means inside or closer to the center, independent of direction.

Slide19

Proximal and distal are used when contrasting positions nearer to or farther from the attachment of a limb or the central aspect of a linear structure (origin in general), respectively. For example, the arm is proximal to the forearm and the hand is distal to the forearm.

Slide20

Terms

of

Laterality

Paired

structures

having

right

and

left

members

(

e.g

.,

the

kidneys

)

are

bilateral

,

whereas

those

occurring

on

one

side

only

(

e.g

.,

the

spleen

)

are

unilateral

.

Something

occurring

on

the

same

side

of

the

body as

another

structure

is

ipsilateral

.

Contralateral

means

occurring

on

the

opposite

side

of

the

body

relative

to

another

structure

.

Slide21

Terms

of

Movement

Various

terms

describe

movements

of

the

limbs

and

other

parts

of

the

body.

Most

movements

are

defined

in

relationship

to

the

anatomical

position

,

with

movements

occurring

within

,

and

around

axes

aligned

with

,

specific

anatomical

planes

.

While

most

movements

occur

at

joints

where

two

or

more

bones

or

cartilages

articulate

with

one

another

,

several

non-skeletal

structures

exhibit

movement

(

e.g

.,

tongue

,

lips

,

eyelids

).

Slide22

Terms of movement may also be considered in pairs of oppositing movements:Flexion and extension movements generally occur in sagittal planes around a transverse axis.

Slide23

Flexion indicates bending or decreasing the angle between the bones or parts of the body. For most joints (e.g., elbow), flexion involves movement in an anterior direction, but it is occasionally posterior, as in the case of the knee joint. Lateral flexion is a movement of the trunk in the coronal plane.

Slide24

Extension indicates straightening or increasing the angle between the bones or parts of the body. Extension usually occurs in a posterior direction. The knee joint, rotated 180° to other joints, is exceptional in that flexion of the knee involves posterior movement and extension involves anterior movement.

Slide25

Slide26

Dorsiflexion describes flexion at the ankle joint, as occurs when walking uphill or lifting the front of the foot and toes off the ground. Plantarflexion bends the foot and toes toward the ground, as when standing on your toes.

Slide27

Abduction and adduction movements generally occur in a frontal plane around an anteroposterior axis. Except for the digits, abduction means moving away from the median plane (e.g., when moving an upper limb laterally away from the side of the body) and adduction means moving toward it.

Slide28

Slide29

Slide30

Slide31

Circumduction is a circular movement that involves sequential flexion, abduction, extension, and adduction in such a way that the distal end of the part moves in a circle. Circumduction can occur at any joint at which all the above-mentioned movements are possible (e.g., the shoulder and hip joints).

Slide32

Slide33

Rotation involves turning or revolving a part of the body around its longitudinal axis, such as turning one's head to face sideways. Medial rotation (internal rotation) brings the anterior surface of a limb closer to the median plane, whereas lateral rotation (external rotation) takes the anterior surface away from the median plane.

Slide34

Pronation rotates the radius medially so that the palm of the hand faces posteriorly and its dorsum faces anteriorly. When the elbow joint is flexed, pronation moves the hand so that the palm faces inferiorly (e.g., placing the palms flat on a table). Supination is the opposite rotational movement, rotating the radius laterally and uncrossing it from the ulna, returning the pronated forearm to the anatomical position. When the elbow joint is flexed, supination moves the hand so that the palm faces superiorly.

Slide35

Slide36

Eversion moves the sole of the foot away from the median plane, turning the sole laterally. Inversion moves the sole of the foot toward the median plane (facing the sole medially).

Slide37

Opposition is the movement by which the pad of the 1st digit (thumb) is brought to another digit pad. This movement is used to pinch, button a shirt, and lift a teacup by the handle. Reposition describes the movement of the 1st digit from the position of opposition back to its anatomical position.l

Slide38

Slide39

Protrusion

is a

movement

anteriorly

(

forward

) as in

protruding

the

mandible

(

chin

),

lips

,

or

tongue

.

Retrusion

is a

movement

posteriorly

(

backward

), as in

retruding

the

mandible

,

lips

,

or

tongue

.

Slide40

Elevation

raises

or

moves

a

part

superiorly

, as in

elevating

the

shoulders

when

shrugging

.

Depression

lowers

or

moves

a

part

inferiorly

, as in

depressing

the

shoulders

when

standing

at

ease

.

Slide41

Protraction

and

retraction

are

used

most

commonly

for

anterolateral

and

posteromedial

movements

of

the

scapula

on

the

thoracic

wall

,

causing

the

shoulder

region

to

move

anteriorly

and

posteriorly

.

Slide42

Regional

terms

Slide43

Slide44

General

information

on

the

systems

http://sinoemedicalassociation.org/AP/bodyregions.pdf

Slide45

Slide46

Body Planes

Figure 1.9a

Slide47

Trunk Cavities

Diaphragm: divides body cavity into thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.Mediastinum: contains all structures of the thoracic cavity except the lungs

Slide48

Ventral Body Cavity Membranes

Parietal serosa lines internal body walls

Visceral serosa covers the internal organs

Serous fluid separates the serosae

Slide49

Serous Membranes

Cover the organs of trunk cavities & line the cavity

Fist represents an organInner balloon wall represents visceral serous membraneOuter balloon wall represents parietal serous membraneCavity between two membranes filled with lubricating serous fluid that is produced by the membranesInflammation of the serous membranes

Slide50

Serous Membranes: Named for Their Specific Cavities and Organs

Pericardium refers to heart.

Pleura refers to lungs and thoracic

cavity

.

Peritoneum refers to

abdominopelvic

cavity

.

Slide51

Other Body Cavities

Oral and digestive – mouth and cavities of the digestive organs

Nasal –located within and posterior to the nose

Orbital – house the eyes

Middle ear – contain bones (

ossicles

) that transmit sound vibrations

Synovial – joint cavities

Slide52

Integumentary SystemThe skin (L. integumentum, a covering) is the body's largest organ, consists of the epidermis, a superficial cellular layer, and the dermis, a deep connective tissue layer.

Slide53

Skeletal System

The skeleton is composed of cartilages and bones

.

Os

= Bone

Osteologia

The

skeletal system may be divided into two functional parts:

 

The

axial skeleton

consists of the bones of the head, neck, and trunk.

The

appendicular skeleton

consists of the bones of the limbs, including those forming the pectoral (shoulder) and pelvic girdles.

Slide54

Slide55

Joints

Joints (articulations) are unions or junctions between two or more bones or rigid parts of the skeleton. Joints exhibit a variety of forms and functions.

Some

joints have no

movement, such as the

epiphysial

plates between the epiphysis and diaphysis of a growing long bone

.

O

thers

allow only slight movement, such as teeth within their

sockets

.

S

ome

are freely movable, such as the

glenohumeral

(shoulder) joint.

Slide56

Muscular System

Myologia

Mus-culus

=

Muscle

, Lat.

Little

mouse

The

muscular system consists of all the muscles of the body.

Slide57

Voluntary skeletal muscles constitute the great majority of the named muscles.

All

skeletal muscles are composed of one specific type of muscle tissue.

However

, other types of muscle tissue constitute a few named muscles (e.g., the

ciliary

and detrusor muscles, and the

arrector

muscles of hairs) and form important components of the organs of other systems, including the cardiovascular, alimentary, genitourinary, integumentary, and visual systems.

Slide58

There are three types of muscles:Striated muscle (skeletal muscles)-voluntarily controlled, though exceptions existNon-striated muscle (smooth muscle) - involuntaryCardiac muscle

Slide59

Cardiovascular System

The heart consists of two muscular pumps that dividing the circulation into two components: the pulmonary and systemic circulations or circuits.

Slide60

The

right ventricle propels low-oxygen blood returning from the systemic circulation into the lungs. Carbon dioxide is exchanged for oxygen in the capillaries of the lungs, and then the oxygen-rich blood is returned to the heart's left atrium. This circuit, from the right ventricle through the lungs to the left atrium, is the pulmonary circulation.

Slide61

The

left ventricle propels the oxygen-rich blood returned to the heart from the pulmonary circulation, exchanging oxygen and nutrients for carbon dioxide in the remainder of the body's capillaries. Low-oxygen blood returns to the heart's right atrium. This circuit, from left ventricle to right atrium, is the systemic circulation.

Slide62

Slide63

Blood VesselsThere are three types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries.Blood under high pressure leaves the heart and is distributed to the body by a branching system of arteries.

Slide64

The final distributing vessels, arterioles, deliver oxygen-rich blood to capillaries. Capillaries form a capillary bed, where the interchange of oxygen, nutrients, waste products, and other substances with the extracellular fluid occurs. Blood from the capillary bed passes into venules, which resemble wide capillaries. Venules drain into small veins that open into larger veins. The largest veins return low-oxygen blood to the heart.

Slide65

Large elastic arteries (conducting arteries) have many elastic layers (sheets of elastic fibers) in their walls. These large arteries initially receive the cardiac output. Examples of large elastic arteries are the aorta, the arteries that originate from the arch of the aorta (brachiocephalic trunk, subclavian and carotid arteries), and the pulmonary trunk and arteries.

Slide66

Medium muscular arteries (distributing arteries) have walls that consist chiefly of circularly disposed smooth muscle fibers. Their ability to decrease their diameter (vasoconstrict) regulates the flow of blood to different parts of the body as required by circumstance (e.g., activity, thermoregulation). Most of the named arteries, including those observed in the body wall and limbs during dissection such as the brachial or femoral arteries, are medium muscular arteries.

Slide67

Small arteries and arterioles have relatively narrow lumina and thick muscular walls. The degree of filling of the capillary beds and level of arterial pressure within the vascular system are regulated mainly by the degree of tonus (firmness) in the smooth muscle of the arteriolar walls. If the tonus is above normal, hypertension (high blood pressure) results.

Slide68

Anastomoses (communications) between multiple branches of an artery provide numerous potential detours for blood flow in case the usual pathway is obstructed by compression due to the position of a joint, pathology, or surgical ligation.

If

a main channel is occluded, the smaller alternate channels can usually increase in size over a period of time, providing a collateral circulation that ensures the blood supply to structures distal to the

blockage

.

Slide69

Lymphoid System

C

onstitutes

a

n

“

overflow” system that provides for the drainage of surplus tissue fluid and leaked plasma proteins to the bloodstream, as well as for the removal of debris from cellular decomposition and infection

.

Lymph nodes, small masses of lymphatic tissue located along the course of lymphatic vessels through which lymph is filtered on its way to the venous system

.

Slide70

Nervous System

The nervous system enables the body to react to continuous changes in its internal and external environments.

It

also controls and integrates the various activities of the body, such as circulation and respiration.

Nervous system controls the systems in the body and regulates its functions according to the impulses received from the outer world (sensations

)

The nervous system controls and integrates the activities of the different parts of the body together with the endocrine system,

Slide71

Nervous System

Nervous

system controls the systems in the body and regulates its functions according to the impulses received from the outer world (sensations

)

The nervous system controls and integrates the activities of the different parts of the body together with the endocrine

system

.

Slide72

For descriptive purposes, the nervous system is divided:

•

Structurally

1. C

entral

nervous system (

CNS

) (MSS in

Turkish

)

brain

and spinal

cord

2. P

eripheral

nervous system (PNS

)

remainder

of the

nervou

s

system

outside of the CNS

.

•

Functionally

1. S

omatic

nervous system (SNS)

2. A

utonomic

nervous system (ANS

)

Slide73

Slide74

Slide75

Nervous tissue consists of two main cell types: Neurons (nerve cells) Neuroglia (glial cells), which support the neurons.

Slide76

Neurons are the structural and functional units of the nervous system specialized for rapid communication. Neuroglia (glial cells or glia), approximately five times as abundant as neurons, are non-neuronal, non-excitable cells that form a major component of nervous tissue, supporting, insulating, and nourishing the neurons.

A

smear from a mammalian spinal cord showing an isolated neuron (large arrow) and the nuclei of the surrounding

neuroglial

cells (small arrows).

Slide77

The principal roles of the CNS are to integrate and coordinate incoming and outgoing neural signals and to carry out higher mental functions, such as thinking and learning.

Slide78

The

peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of nerve fibers and cell bodies outside the CNS that conduct impulses to or away from the CNS. The PNS is organized into nerves that connect the CNS with peripheral structures.

Slide79

PNS

is anatomically and operationally continuous with the CNS.

Its

afferent (sensory) fibers convey neural impulses to the CNS from the sense organs (e.g., the eyes) and from sensory receptors in various parts of the body (e.g., in the skin).

Its

efferent (motor) fibers convey neural impulses from the CNS to effector organs (muscles and glands).

Slide80

Nerves are either cranial nerves or spinal nerves, or derivatives of them

.

Cranial nerves

exit the cranial cavity through foramina (openings) in the cranium (G.

kranion

, skull) and are identified by a descriptive name (e.g., “trochlear nerve”) or a Roman numeral (e.g., “CN IV”).

Slide81

Spinal

(segmental) nerves

exit the vertebral column (spine).

Spinal

nerves arise in bilateral pairs from a specific segment of the spinal cord.

The

31 spinal cord segments and the 31 pairs of nerves arising from them are identified by a letter and number (e.g., “T4”) designating the region of the spinal cord and their superior-to-inferior order (C, cervical; T, thoracic; L, lumbar; S, sacral; Co, coccygeal).

Slide82

Cranial NervesSome cranial nerves convey only sensory fibers, some only motor fibers, and some carry a mixture of both types of fibers.

Cranial

nerve

i -

olfactory

(

sensory

)

Cranial

nerve

ii -

optic

(

sensory

)

3.

cranial

nerve

iii -

Oculomotor

(

sensory

and

motor)

4.

Cranial

nerve

iv -

trochlear

(motor)

5.

Cranial

nerve

v -

trigeminal

(

sensory

and

motor)

6.

Cranial

nerve

vi -

abducent

(motor)

7.

Cranial

nerve

vii -

facial

(

sensory

and

motor)

8.

Cranial

nerve

viii -

vestibule

cochlear

(

sensory

)

9.

Cranial

nerve

ix -

glosspharyngeal

(

sensory

and

motor)

10.

Cranial

nerve

x -

Vagus

(

sensory

and

motor)

11.

Cranial

nerve

xi

accessory

(motor)

12.

Cranial

nerve

xii -

hypoglossal

(motor)

Slide83

Somatic

and Visceral

Fibres

The types of fibers conveyed by cranial or spinal

nerves

:

Somatic

fibers

General

sensory fibers

(general somatic afferent [GSA] fibers) transmit sensations from the body to the CNS; they may be

exteroceptive

sensations from the skin (pain, temperature, touch, and pressure) or pain and proprioceptive sensations from muscles, tendons, and joints

.

Somatic motor fibers

(general somatic efferent [GSE] fibers) transmit impulses to skeletal (voluntary) muscles.

Slide84

Visceral fibers

Visceral sensory fibers

(general visceral afferent [GVA] fibers) transmit pain or subconscious visceral reflex sensations (information concerning distension, blood gas, and blood pressure levels, for example) from hollow organs and blood vessels to the CNS

.

Visceral motor fibers

(general visceral efferent [GVE] fibers) transmit impulses to smooth (involuntary) muscle and glandular tissues.

Slide85

Somatic Nervous

System

The somatic nervous system (SNS), composed of somatic parts of the CNS and PNS, provides

sensory

and

motor

innervation to all parts of the body (G. soma), except the viscera in the body cavities, smooth muscle, and glands.

Slide86

The

somatic sensory system

transmits sensations of touch, pain, temperature, and position from sensory receptors

.

Most of these sensations reach conscious levels (i.e., we are aware of them).

The

somatic motor system innervates only skeletal muscle, stimulating voluntary and reflexive movement by causing the muscle to contract, as occurs in response to touching a hot iron.

Slide87

Autonomic Nervous

System

(

Visceral

Nervous

System

)

The autonomic nervous system (ANS), classically described as the visceral nervous system or visceral motor system, consists of motor fibers that stimulate smooth (involuntary) muscle, modified cardiac muscle (the intrinsic stimulating and conducting tissue of the heart), and glandular (secretory) cells.

Slide88

The efferent nerve fibers and ganglia of the ANS are organized into two systems or divisions: Sympathetic divisionParasympathetic division(craniosacral) division

Slide89

Respiratory System

The respiratory apparatus consists of the nose, nasopharynx, paranasal sinuses, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, and pleuræ.

Slide90

NoseConsists of the external nose and the nasal cavity, both of which are divided by a septum into right and left halves. Opens into the nasopharynx. An amazing humidifier and warmer of air.

Slide91

The paranasal sinuses are cavities found in the interior of the maxilla, frontal, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones. They are filled with air; they communicate with the nasal cavity through relatively small apertures. Infection of the paranasal sinuses is a common complication of nasal infections.We still are unsure as to all the functions of these air-filled spaces. Multiple theories of function exist.

Slide92

NasopharynxIt is located posterior to the nose and superior to the soft palate. Being one of the three parts of the pharynx, a structure belonging to the digestive system, nasopharynx has a respiratory function. It is the posterior extension of the nasal cavities. The nose opens into the nasopharynx .

Slide93

Larynx

O

rgan

of voice

voice

box

Located

between

the trachea and the root of the tongue, at the upper and forepart of the neck, where it presents a considerable projection in the middle line.

P

laced

at the upper part of the air

passage

Although

most commonly known for its role as the phonating mechanism for voice production, its most vital function is to guard the air passages, especially during swallowing when it serves as the “sphincter” or “valve” of the lower respiratory tract, thus maintaining a patent airway.

C

omposed

of nine cartilages connected by membranes and ligaments and containing the vocal folds.

Slide94

Slide95

TracheaExtending from the larynx into the thorax, terminates inferiorly as it divides into right and left main bronchi. Transports air to and from the lungs.A fibrocartilaginous tube, supported by incomplete cartilaginous tracheal cartilages (rings), that occupies a median position in the neck. The tracheal cartilages keep the trachea patent.

Slide96

PleuraEach pulmonary cavity (right and left) is lined by a pleural membrane (pleura) that also reflects onto and covers the external surface of the lungs occupying the cavities. Each lung is invested by and enclosed in a serous pleural sac.

Slide97

LungsVital organs of respiration. Main function is to oxygenate the blood Although cadaveric lungs may be shrunken, firm or hard, and discolored, healthy lungs in living people are normally light, soft, and spongy, and fully occupy the pulmonary cavities.

Slide98

Tracheobronchial Tree Beginning at the larynx, the walls of the airway are supported by horseshoe- or C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage. The trachea constitutes the trunk of the tree. It bifurcates into main bronchi (right and left main bronchi), one to each lung. Within the lungs, the bronchi branch in a constant fashion to form the branches of the tracheobronchial tree.

Slide99

Slide100

Digestive System

The apparatus for the digestion of the food consists of the digestive tube and of certain accessory organs.

The

Digestive Tube (alimentary canal) is a

musculomembranous

tube, about 9

metres

long, extending from the mouth to the anus, and lined throughout its entire extent by mucous membrane.

Slide101

It

has received different names in the various parts of its course

:

A

t

its commencement is the mouth, where provision is made for the mechanical division of the food (mastication), and for its admixture with a fluid secreted by the salivary glands (insalivation

)

B

eyond

this are the organs of deglutition, the pharynx and the esophagus, which convey the food into the stomach, in which it is stored for a time and in which also the first stages of the digestive process take

place

.

Slide102

Peristalsis, a series of ring-like contraction waves, begins around the middle of the stomach and moves slowly toward the pylorus. It is responsible for mixing the masticated (chewed) food mass with gastric juices and for emptying the contents of the stomach into the duodenum.

Slide103

T

he

stomach is followed by the small intestine, which is divided for purposes of description into three parts, the duodenum, the jejunum, and ileum.

In

the small intestine the process of digestion is completed and the resulting products are absorbed into the blood and lacteal vessels.

Finally

the small intestine ends in the large intestine, which is made up of cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal, the last terminating on the surface of the body at the anus.

Slide104

 The accessory organs are the teeth, for purposes of mastication; the three pairs of salivary glands—the parotid, submaxillary, and sublingual—the secretion from which mixes with the food in the mouth and converts it into a bolus and acts chemically on one of its constituents.

Slide105

The liver and pancreas, two large glands in the abdomen, the secretions of which assist in the process of digestion.

Slide106

Absorption of chemical compounds occurs principally in the small intestine, a coiled 5- to 6-m-long tube (shorter in life, when tonus is present, than in the cadaver) consisting of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.

Slide107

Slide108

Most reabsorption of water occurs in the ascending colon.Feces form in the descending and sigmoid colon and accumulate in the rectum before defecation.

Slide109

Peritoneum and Periotenal CavityThe peritoneum is a continuous, serous membrane which lines the abdominopelvic cavity and invests the viscera. The peritoneal cavity is within the abdominal cavity and continues inferiorly into the pelvic cavity.

Slide110

Oral region includes: Oral cavityTeethGingivaeTonguePalateRegion of the palatine tonsils

Slide111

The oral cavity is where food is ingested and prepared for digestion in the stomach and small intestine

.

Food

is chewed by the teeth, and saliva from the salivary glands facilitates the formation of a manageable food bolus (L. lump).

Slide112

PharynxThe pharynx is the superior expanded part of the alimentary system posterior to the nasal and oral cavities, extending inferiorly past the larynx.EsophagusThe esophagus is a muscular tube that conveys food from the pharynx to the stomach.

Slide113

StomachThe stomach is the expanded part of the digestive tract between the esophagus and small intestine. It is specialized for the accumulation of ingested food, which it chemically and mechanically prepares for digestion and passage into the duodenum. The stomach acts as a food blender and reservoir; its chief function is enzymatic digestion.

Slide114

Small IntestineThe small intestine, consisting of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, is the primary site for absorption of nutrients from ingested materials.

Slide115

The duodenum (L. breadth of 12 fingers), the first and shortest part of the small intestine, is also the widest and most fixed part. The second part of the small intestine is the jejunum, whereas third part is, the ileum. Together, the jejunum and ileum are 6-7 m long.

Slide116

Large IntestineThe large intestine consists of the cecum; appendix; ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colon; rectum; and anal canal.

Slide117

The large intestine is where water is absorbed from the indigestible residues of the liquid chyme, converting it into semi-solid stool or feces that is stored temporarily and allowed to accumulate until defecation occurs.

Slide118

Excretory System

Functions

Collect

water and filter body fluids.

Remove

and concentrate waste products from body fluids and return other substances to body fluids as necessary for homeostasis.

Eliminate

excretory products from the body.

Slide119

Kidneys

The

ovoid kidneys remove excess water, salts, and wastes of protein metabolism from the blood while returning nutrients and chemicals to the blood.

The

kidneys produce urine that is conveyed by the ureters to the urinary bladder in the pelvis.

Slide120

The superomedial aspect of each kidney normally contacts a suprarenal gland. A weak fascial septum separates the glands from the kidneys so that they are not actually attached to each other. The suprarenal glands function as part of the endocrine system, completely separate in function from the kidneys.

Slide121

UretersThe ureters are muscular ducts with narrow lumina that carry urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder.

Slide122

Urinary bladderThe urinary bladder, a hollow viscus with strong muscular walls, is characterized by its distensibility. The urinary bladder is a temporary reservoir for urine and varies in size, shape, position, and relationships according to its content and the state of neighboring viscera.

Slide123

UrethraThe male urethra is a muscular tube that conveys urine from the internal urethral orifice of the urinary bladder to the external urethral orifice, located at the tip of the glans penis in males. The urethra also provides an exit for semen (sperms and glandular secretions). The female urethra passes anteroinferiorly from the internal urethral orifice of the urinary bladder.

Slide124

Endocrine System

The endocrine system is made up of glands that produce and secrete hormones.

These

hormones regulate the body's growth, metabolism (the physical and chemical processes of the body), and sexual development and function.

Slide125

Endocrine System

The hormones are released into the bloodstream and may affect one or several organs throughout the body

.

Hormones are chemical messengers created by the body

.

They transfer information from one set of cells to another to coordinate the functions of different parts of the body.

Slide126

The

major glands of the endocrine system

Hypothalamu

s

Pituitary

gland

T

hyroid

P

arathyroids

S

uprarenal

glands

P

ineal

body

T

he

reproductive organs (ovaries and

testes

)

The

pancreas

is also a part of this system; it has a role in hormone production as well as in digestion.

Slide127

The endocrine system is regulated by feedback in much the same way that a thermostat regulates the temperature in a room.

For

the hormones that are regulated by the pituitary gland, a signal is sent from the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland in the form of a "releasing hormone," which stimulates the pituitary to secrete a "stimulating hormone" into the circulation.

Slide128

The

stimulating hormone then signals the target gland to secrete its hormone.

As

the level of this hormone rises in the circulation, the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland shut down secretion of the releasing hormone and the stimulating hormone, which in turn slows the secretion by the target gland.

This

system results in stable blood concentrations of the hormones that are regulated by the pituitary gland

.

Slide129

Slide130

Slide131

Slide132

Reproductive

System

Slide133

Slide134

Slide135

Slide136

M

ale

internal genital organs

Testes

E

pididymides

(singular = epididymis

)

D

uctus

deferentes

(singular =

ductus

deferens

S

eminal

glands

E

jaculatory

ducts

Prostate

B

ulbourethral

glands

Slide137

Slide138

F

emale

internal genital organs

Ovaries

U

terine

tubes

Uterus

V

agina

Slide139