Stratigraphy B Natalin 2 Prof Dr Boris Alekseevich Natalin Office E 502 Phone 285 6221 email natalinituedutr Website httpwebituedutrnatalin Assistant Ali ID: 540156
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Slide1
1
Lecture 1: Introduction and Historical perspective
Stratigraphy
B. NatalinSlide2
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Prof. Dr. Boris
Alekseevich
Natalin,
Office – E 502
Phone – 285 6221,
e-mail:
natalin@itu.edu.tr
Website:
http://web.itu.edu.tr/~natalin/
Assistant: Ali
Yücel
E-mail:
aliosmanyucel@gmail.com
Slide3
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Textbooks
Prothero, D. R., 1990. Interpreting the stratigraphic record: W. H. Freeman, New York, 410 p.
Boggs, S. Jr., 2001. Principles of sedimentology and stratigraphy. Third edition. Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 726 p.
Salvador, A., ed., 1994, International stratigraphic guide - A Guide to stratigraphic classification, terminology, and procedure, second edition, The Geological Society of America, Boulder, 214 p. Slide4
4You should read the textbooks!PowerPoint presentation will be not posted in the web!Slide5
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How to use lecture schedule
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10.03
Lithostratigraphy, Lecture 3 Nomenclature and classification of lithostratigraphic units: Time, time-rock, and rock unit, Geologic time scale, Formal lithostratigraphic units.
Stratigraphic methods: Stratigraphic sections, Stratigraphic cross section and fence diagrams, Stratigraphic maps, Basin analysis.
PR-Ch. 8
(p. 201-207).
BG-Ch. 13.5
(p. 469-473, 581-589)
PR-Ch. 9
(p. 209-220).
BG-Ch. 19.5
(p. 633-645)
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17.03
Biostratigraphy, Lecture 1: Biostratigraphic concepts (faunal succession, concept of zone), Evolution and paleoecology, Biogeographic provinces, Immigration and emigration of fossils, Biostratigraphic zonation (interval zones, assemblage zones, abundance zones).
PR-Ch. 10
(p. 229-236).
BG-Ch. 17
(p. 547-555)Slide6
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Examinations
Two examinations: one after discussion of litho- and biostratigraphy and the other one at the end of the semester.
Quiz containing 3-5 questions.
3 home works Slide7
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Grading
Final examination –
45 points
Midterm examination –
30 points
.
Quizzes –
10 points
Homeworks –
15 points
I reserve the right to rise or reduce by
10 points
the final mark on the basis of my impression of student overall performance and enthusiasm
Minimal limit for success –
40 point
. Slide8
GradingRepeated studies:Fives time – 3 students;Forth time – 5; students;Third time – 5 students;Second time – 17 students;First time – 30 students. 8
Exams consist of: 1) 10-20 short questions; 2) 2-3 essays; 3) 1-2 problems. During the final exam, I suggest a bonus essay that cost 10 points (my extra points are not included)!
Attendance
=Slide9
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Geological map of the northern part of IstanbulSlide10
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All geological maps show ages of the
rocks
Stratigraphic units
Search for mineral resources is impossible without geological maps
Legend of
the geological mapSlide11
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Stratigraphy
From the Latin
stratum
and Greek
graphia
Traditionally it was considered as a descriptive science of rock strata (sedimentary rocks).
Definition:
The branch of geology that reconstructs temporal relationships from spatial relationships is called stratigraphy. (Şengör,
Sak
in
ç, 2001)
First usage:
William Smith (1817) Slide12
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Stratigraphy
Now, all classes of rocks – sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic – fall within the scope of stratigraphy.
Stratigraphic procedure includes:
- description;
- classification;
- naming;
- correlation of rock unites.Slide13
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Geologic time
Absolute date
Newton time –
time and space are independent aspects of objective
reality
Einstein time – time and space are related
Absolute date pinpoints the time in history when something took place.
Absolute time
is the same for everyone, everywhere.
Relative dating
Rocks are placed in their proper sequence of the formation.Slide14
14
How we know time?
Absolute time:
Process
→ Rate of process → Time
Relative time:
Structural relations of rock bodies (lower or higher).Slide15
15
Early ideas about the Earth/Time
Non-Western cultures (China, India) thought of the Earth as eternal and it is unchanging or as changing cyclically
Pre-Socratic Greeks explained natural phenomena without involvements of gods. They thought that the universe was governed by unchanging
principles
and with intelligible and discoverable natural laws. Slide16
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Early ideas about the Earth
Heraclitus of Ephesus (540-480 BC)
The "doctrine of flux" which viewed the whole cosmos as in a constant state of change. He expressed this view poetically as a metaphor: "You cannot step twice into the same river; for fresh waters are ever flowing in upon you" Slide17
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Early ideas about the Earth/Time
Xenophanes of Colophon (570 BC-480 BC) saw shells high on the cliffs and suggested that the sea periodically covered the land
Herodotus (484-425 BC) suggested change of
shoreline (the Nile delta)Slide18
Contribution of GreekLong duration of geologic time: Anaxagoras (500-428 BC), Herodotus (485-425 BC), Strabo (64/63 BC-23AD)Landscape is formed by erosion: Herodotus (485-425 BC), Publius Ovidius (Ovid) Naso (43 BC – AD 17/18), Pliny the Elder (23-78 AD), Polybius (ca. 200–118 BC), Strabo (64/63 BC -23 AD)Sea level changes: Xenophanes of Colophon (570-470- BC), Herodotus (485-425 BC), Aristotle (384-322 BC), Strabo (64/63BC-23AD), Ovid (43 BC – AD 17/18)Slide19
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Nicolaus Steno (1638-1686)
Dane
Noted that teeth of the shark are the same as the
glossopetrae
(tongue stones) so often found as fossils
"The
prodromus
of
Nicolaus
Steno's dissertation concerning a solid body enclosed by a process of nature within a solid" Slide20
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Relative dating
Nicolaus Steno (1638-1686)
is the founder of relative datingSlide21
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Steno's Laws
Original horizontality
Gravity controls the deposition of rocks. Thus, layers of rocks are originally horizontal.
Original continuity
Strata originally extended in all directions until wedging at edges of depositional basin.
Superposition
In a succession of sedimentary rocks that is not deformed, the oldest rocks are at the bottom
(relative age of the rocks)
. Slide22
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Original horizontalitySlide23
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Original horizontality
These folded rocks were originally
horizontalSlide24
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Original continuitySlide25
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Original continuitySlide26
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Law of superpositionSlide27
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Principal of inclusionSlide28
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Principle of cross-cutting relationships
Layers
Dykes (intrusions)
FaultsSlide29
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Early time scales
Johann Gottlob Lehmann (1700-1767), professor at the mining academy in Berlin
Ganggebirge
- crystalline and tilted rocks in the cores
Flötzgebirge
- rocks formed during the Noah's time
Landslide, volcanic eruptions post Noah's timeSlide30
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Giovanni Arduino (1713-1795), professor of mineralogy at Padua, Italy
(1) Primary -Primitive schist, granites, and basalts that form the cores
(2) Secondary - fossiliferous layered limestones and shales
(3) Tertiary - very fossiliferous layered sedimentary rocks in low hills. Slide31
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Historical perspective
Abraham Gottlob Werner (1750-1817) From Freiberg Mining Academy which he made the center of geology in Europe. He is the founder of
Neptunism
. Slide32
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Wernerian Scheme
1. Primitive (
Ürgebirge
): igneous and metamorphic rocks. Chemical precipitation.
2. Transition (
Übergangsgebirge
): altered limestone, dykes, sills, sandstone. Extend all over the world.
3. Stratified (
Flötz
). Secondary.
Fosilliferous
sedimentary rocks. Appeared due to erosion of rising mountains. Not continuous.
4. Alluvial (
Aufgeschwemmte
). Poorly consolidated. Ocean retreated completely.
5. Volcanic. Young. Resulted from burning of coal. Slide33
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Leopold von
Buch
(1774-1853) accepted igneous origin of basalt
PlutonistsSlide34
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James Hutton (1726–1797): Member of the Oyster Club and the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Valued natural laws.
Concept of uniformitarianism and unconformitiesSlide35
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Uniformitarianism
The hypothesis that current geologic processes, such as the slow erosion of a coast under the impact of waves, have been occurring in a similar manner throughout the Earth's history and that these processes can account for past geologic events
The present is the key to the pastSlide36
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J. Hutton
Rock cycleSlide37
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Hutton and unconformity; estimation of the earth age.
Catastrophism
Too many
unconformities,
therefore the Earth must be much older than the 6000 years allowed by prevailing interpretation of the Scripture.Slide38
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Historical perspective
Charles Lyell (1797-1875) in 1830-1833 published three volumes Principles of Geology
Argued for uniformity of natural laws and processes (
actualism
) and for uniformity of rates of these processes (
gradualism
). Slide39
39
Fossils and correlation
William Smith
(1769-1839), the first professional geologist
He invented the
Principle of faunal succession
(1796)Slide40
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Smith’ s principle:
Similar
fossils
occur
in similar
rocks
Geological map of England and Wales (Smith, 1815
)
Quarry
Hill
CanalSlide41
41
Fossils and catastrophes as time measure
Baron George Cuvier (1769-1832)
Mammoth
are
different from modern
elephants.
Extinct
mammoth provide an
upper time limit
for the world, in which they lived.
The
absence of fossil human bones
provides a
lower time limit
for the present world (Cuvier, 1796)Slide42
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Time
Rock (stratigraphic record)
Human bones
Mammoth bones
Upper time limit for mammoth
Lower time limit for men
Cuvier’s biostratigraphySlide43
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Fossils and
catastrophes
Theory of
universal catastrophes annihilating whole faunas and their replacement by entirely newer
ones.
Noah flood.
Cuvier and
Alexandre
Brongniart
(1770-1847) studied
fossils in the Paris
Basin
in 1811
.
Documented the revolution of life on earth by many antediluvian
floods. Slide44
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Lyell’s “clock”
Period
Living species
Newer Pliocene
90
Older Pliocene
33-50
Miocene
17
Eocene
3.5Slide45
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Relative versus numerical age
Adding up the ages of the patriarchs listed in the Bible “Begat” method
Archbishop James Ussher of Ireland (1581-1665) declared that the Earth was created in the evening of October 22, 4004 BCSlide46
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Relative versus numerical age
Assumption: Physical properties of the Earth had change uniformly through time
Increase in ocean salinity: Jolly, 1899, – 90 Ma
Rate of sediment accumulation: estimates between – 100 Ma
Cooling from an initial molten state: William Thomson, Lord Kelvin (1824-1907) – 100 Ma
Modern geochronology: The age of the Earth is 4.56 Ga (billion years)Slide47
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Naming of
Eras, Periods
and Systems
Paleozoic era – Adam Sedgwick (1839)
Mesozoic era – John Phillips (1840)
Cenozoic (
Kainozoic
) – John Phillips (1840
).
These names and usage of fossils as time interval measure
pre-dated
Darwin’s
Origin of
Species
(
1859
). Slide49
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Tertiary – Tuscany, Giovanni
Arduino
1760
Jurassic – Jura Mountains, Alexandre von Humboldt 1799
Cretaceous –
southern England, northern France, and Belgium, d'Omalius d'Halloy, 1822Slide50
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Triassic –
Germany , Friedrich August von Albert, 1815
Silurian –
Welsh, Murchison, 1835
Cambrian –
northern Wales, Sedgwick, 1835
Ordovician –
Charles Lapworth, 1879Slide51
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Devonian –
William Lonsdale, 1837 Slide52
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Permian – Urals,
Roderick Murchison 1840 and 1841