Chapter 30: The Turbulent 60’s - PowerPoint Presentation

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Chapter 30:The Turbulent 60’s

Presentation by:Matt Stover, Zack Jones, & Ahmed AnikSlide2

Kennedy versus Nixon

The 1960 Election was the first election to hold televised presidential candidate debate

Democrat John F. Kennedy’s success in televised debates against Republican Richard Nixon was crucial to JFK’s election

Kennedy exploited the frustration Americans felt following the USSR’s

Sputnik

and promised a domestic program known as the

New Frontier

Kennedy’s victory signified the changes taking place in American life: Kennedy symbolized youth, energy and ambition in contrast to Eisenhower’s aging administration. Slide3

Election of 1960

Richard M. Nixon lost to John. F. Kennedy

by only two-tenths of 1 in the popular voteSlide4

Kennedy Intensifies the Cold War

Kennedy gave foreign policy top priority from the day he took office.

Foreign policy crises arose in Berlin, the Soviet Union, Southeast Asia, and Cuba (

NOT Mexico)

Kennedy’s staff was heavily populated with academics and intellectuals

Robert McNamara, president of the Ford Motor Company, became Kennedy’s Secretary of DefenseSlide5

Flexible Response

The first goal of the Kennedy administration was to build up the nation’s armed forces, both nuclear and conventional strength

The US had a significant lead in nuclear power over the Soviets by 1961 due to Eisenhower

JFK’s “flexible response” plan

was to ensure that the US would have the ability to retaliate against the USSR in several ways & not just the nuclear threats which the Eisenhower Administration relied on.Slide6

Crisis over Berlin

Premier

Nikita Khruschev

,

whom both Kennedy & Eisenhower had to deal with

, wanted to fix the issue of skilled workers leaving East Germany through Berlin to West Germany.

JFK was adamant in keeping American forces in Berlin declaring that the defense of Berlin is “essential” to “the entire Free World.”

Failing to reach a compromise, the Soviets built the Berlin Wall

to keep East Germans migrating to the West

.Slide7

Containment in Southeast Asia

Kennedy advocated for financial and technical assistance to help Third World nations build stable economies and pro-West governments, but had also relied heavily on the Green Berets and force to fight back Communism.

Kennedy faced a major challenge in Southeast Asia as the North Vietnamese government, led by Ho Chi Minh, directed the efforts of the Vietcong rebels in the South (which was led by American backed Ngo Dinh Diem)

Kennedy, to fight back against communism in Vietnam, decided to

increase the number of military advisers in Vietnam

but had refused to send in combat troops. The number of American advisers in the region went from less than one thousand in 1961 to more than sixteen thousand by late 1963.

Diem had lost the favor and support of the Vietnamese people, and Kennedy had tacitly approved a coup that led to Diem’s overthrow and death.

Kennedy had said that the situation in Vietnam was not to be determined by the US but by Vietnam, stating “It is their war. They are the ones who have to win or lose it.” However, Kennedy did not withdraw from Southeast Asia in fear of communists taking over the region as they had taken over China.Slide8

Containing Castro: The Bay of Pigs Fiasco

The fight against communism expansion reached a peak in Cuba where ties between the Soviet Union and Fidel Castro’s regime grew.

Kennedy supported Cuban exiles who were against Castro, calling them “fighters for freedom.”

The US had masterminded an operation on April 17, 1961 which contained fourteen hundred Cuban exiles moving ashore at the Bay of Pigs on the southern coast of Cuba. Kennedy insisted on covert action and canceled a planned American air strike on the beachhead, which led to the failure of the plan.

The Bay of Pigs Invasion was JFK’s most obvious foreign policy disasterSlide9

Containing Castro: The Cuban Missile Crisis

October 1962 -

Cuban missile crisis

Throughout the summer and early fall of 1962, the Soviets had armed Cuba with missiles in fear of an American invasion of the Island.

The US had found out about these missile developments on October 14 after a U-2 flight mission took photographic evidence of the missile sites (which were near completion).

Kennedy & his advisers had agreed to proclaim a quarantine of Cuba to stop any new missiles from arriving and threatened an invasion if the Russians did not cooperate and remove the missiles.

October 22 - Kennedy told the public of the missiles in Cuba and his plan to deal with them

After six days of negotiating between US and USSR officials, Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles in return for Kennedy’s promise not to invade the IslandSlide10

Outcome of The Cuban Missile Crisis

The peaceful resolution of the Cuban missile crisis helped JFK win reelection and his popularity reached new heights.

The crisis led to the creation of a “hot line” for direct communication between Washington and Moscow in emergencies

American foreign policy hawks believed that the outcome of the Cuban Missile Crisis justified a policy of nuclear superiority

The Cuban Missile Crisis DID NOT lead to a de-escalation of the US-Soviet arms race

Rather, the Soviets were convinced that they needed more nuclear power and the arms race escalated

Picture:

Your Tomorrow

U.S. Government Printing Office, 1965

Concerns during the Cold War EraSlide11

Your Tomorrow U.S. Government Printing Office, 1965 :

Displayed Concerns during the Cold War Era

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The New Frontier at Home

For the first time, people who were born in the 20th century and had entered political life after WWII were in charge of the nation.

Kennedy’s new administration

Abraham Ribicoff - Secretary of health, education and welfare

Arthur J. Goldberg - Secretary of the interior (not commerce)

Robert F. Kennedy - Attorney General (MOST CONTROVERSIAL)Slide13

The Congressional Obstacle

Despite the Democrats holding majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate, a conservative coalition of Northern Republicans and southern Democrats opposed all efforts at reform

Due to this,

Congress was Kennedy’s greatest domestic obstacle as President.

Conservative coalition were against education and health-care proposalsSlide14

Economic Advance

Kennedy wanted to stimulate the sluggish American economy and achieve high rates of long-term growth.

He believed that the US had to surpass the Soviet Union in economic vitality

Stimulation of the economy came from increased appropriations for defense and space & not social programs

Kennedy’s administration wanted to keep the inflation rate low & had relied on informal wage and price guidelines to hold down the cost of living.

JFK became outraged when the leaders of the Steel industry raised their prices, publicly shaming them

Kennedy had a strained relationship with businesses, and when the stock market suddenly fell in May 1962, many called it “the Kennedy market.”

Kennedy finally used unorthodox economic methods such as tax cuts and resulting deficits, which improved the economy tremendously

Overall, Kennedy’s economic policy was far more successful than his legislative effortsSlide15

Moving Slowly on Civil Rights

Kennedy had portrayed himself as crusader for African American rights during his 1960 campaign and promised to launch an attack on segregation in the Deep South.

The conflict here was that he was afraid that in doing this he would be alienating the large bloc of southern democrats

.

Kennedy defers congressional action in favor of executive leadership

He directed his brother, Attorney General Robert Kennedy, to continue and expand the Eisenhower administration's effort to achieve voting rights for southern blacks.

There was many dramatic gains for African Americans during Kennedy's presidency because of a limited budget and reliance on voluntary cooperation

Kennedy succeed in appointing a number of African Americans to high government position; for example,

Robert Weaver became chief of the federal housing agency, and Thurgood Marshall, who was appointed to The US Circuit Court after pleading the Brown v. Topeka school desegregation case.Slide16

Moving Slowly on Civil Rights

The Civil Rights movement refused to accept Kennedy’s indirect approach.

In May 1961, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) sponsored a freedom ride

in which a biracial group attempted to test a 1960 Supreme Court decision outlawing segregation in all bus and train stations.

WHen they arrived in Birmingham Alabama, the freedom riders were attacked by a mob of angry whites. The attorney general quickly sent in several hundred marshals to protect the freedom riders

Kennedy was deeply involved with the Berlin Crisis and was more upset at the distraction the protestor created.Slide17

"I Have a Dream"

Martin Luther King Jr. finally forced Kennedy to abandon his cautious tactics and come out openly on behalf of racial justice.

In 1963 King began a massive protest in Birmingham, one of the south's most segregated cities. It was a nonviolent protest in which the authorities handled violently

Kennedy intervened on the side of the blacks and Congress asked for civil rights laws

August 1963, civil rights leaders hold a March on Washington. There were more than 200,000 marchers who gathered for a daylong rally in front of the Lincoln Memorial where MLK delivered his speech.

In the end Kennedy's efforts towards civil rights paid off for African Americans although many found it frustration in the way he handled it.Slide18

"I Have a Dream"

The issues that Martin Luther King brought up during the speech were addressed by the Civil Rights Act of 1964Slide19

Supreme Court and Reform

Defendants rights in criminal cases

In the cases of Gideon v. Wainright, Escobedo v. Illinois, and Miranda v. Arizona the majority decreed that the defendants had to be provided lawyers, had to be informed of their constitutional rights, and could not be interrogated to confess a crime without defense counsel being present.

Perhpas one of the most far-reaching decisions of the Warrens Court was legislative reapportionment of the states

1962 : Baker vs. Carr sparks the principal of "one man, one voter" where the Court had to redistribute it's legislative seats to give citizens in Memphis equal representation .Slide20

The Supreme Court and Reform

Greater social justice now achieved

Rights of the underprivileged are protected

Dissent and free expressionism protected

The reform brought on alot of criticism as many thought the rulings extended protection to criminals and those accused of subversive activity.

the 1962 Engel vs. Vitale decision to ban school prayer incensed many conservative Americans, who saw the court as undermining moral values.Slide21

"Let Us Continue"

The new frontier came to a sudden and violent end on November 22, 1963, when Lee Harvey Oswald assassinated JFK as he rode in a motorcade in downtown dallas.

Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson took the place of Kennedy as president.

Lyndon Johnson promises to continue Kennedy’s programs.

Johnson ultimately exceeded Kennedy’s record on economic and racial equality.Slide22

Johnson in Action

Lyndon Johnson had a poor image on television and was inevitably always compared to JFK

A very effective manager of Congress

Took on a domestic program called the Great Society

Concentrated on securing the passage of Kennedy's tax and civil rights bills in 1964.

Spring, 1964 Kennedy's tax cut is passedSlide23

Johnson in Action

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Without the help of Republican senator Everett Dirksen, civil rights legislation would have probably been filibustered to death in the senate.

Established the Equal Employment Opportunity Comission

Banned public segregation

Established equal employment opportunity commission to lessen job discrimination

Protected voting rights of African Americans

Amended (by segregationists) to include women in an attempt to reduce support for itSlide24

The Election of 1964

1964: Johnson launched a war on poverty which was inspired greatly by Micheal Harrington's book,

The Other America

Programs included Head Starts, Job Corps, Community Action Programs

Encouraged self - help

Rducing poverty gave him a good reputation and aided his shot at re-election

Johnson won in a landslide election against Republican Barry Goldwater

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The Triumph of Reform

1965: Great Society legislation advanced beyond new deal

Medicare - mandated health insurance under the Social Security program for those over 65

Medicaid - program for the indigent

Elementary and secondary Education Act - provides more than 1 billion $ in federal aid to schools

Voting Rights ActSlide26

African American Voter Registration Before and After the Passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1964Slide27

Johnson Escalates the Vietnam War

1965: Troop sent to Dominican Republic

Determined not to lose "Vietnam to the CommunistsSlide28

Foreign Policy

Lyndon Johnson's foreign policy was widely known as a mere continuation of Kennedy's policies.

Perhaps Johnson's greatest downfall was his obsession with the Vietnam war.

William Fulbright criticized johnson for his actions surrounding the war in Vietnam as fulbright greatly opposed the warSlide29

The Vietnam Dilemma

1964: Saigon on the verge of collapse

Johnson’s initial response

Refused to send American combat forces

Economic aid

Military advisers

Covert actions

August 1964: Gulf of Tonkin Resolution gives Johnson authority to escalate in VietnamSlide30

Southeast Asia and Vietnam WarSlide31

Escalation

U.S. effort intended to bring Hanoi into peace negotiations

Policy of secrecy and deceit to assure Americans of Vietnam’s insignificance and keep Vietnam from endangering the Great Society

Johnson’s “sins” in Vietnam were secrecy, deceit, and refusing to admit he had committed U.S. to dangerous conflictSlide32

Stalemate

American side of Vietnam War hindered by bad military decisions

500K troops stationed in Vietnam by 68’

General William Westmoreland puts emphasis on attrition-heavy war tactics

American military strategy largely dependent on the sheer quantity of firepower

All tactics unsuccessful

1965-Johnson begins to use

air strikes

in a desperate attempt to improve the situation in Vietnam

Failed entirely

; jungle canopy shielded enemy soldiersSlide33

Years of Turmoil

Public support waned as the war progressed

My Lai Massacre-1968-over 200 unarmed civilians killed by American troops under Lieutenant William Calley Jr.

Johnson held largely accountable for trouble in Vietnam as he was not upfront with the American populations concerning the details of the war

Johnson gave a false impression of winning in Vietnam; public felt lied to after learning the truth

Homefront becomes unstable as public outcry over the war increases

War in Vietnam shows no signs of slowing downSlide34

The Student Revolt

First student rebellion-1964-University of California Berkeley

Leading figure-Mario Savio

Two sections of student revolt

Cultural Revolution

Protest against Vietnam War

Largest protest group-

Students for a Democratic Society (SDS)Slide35

60’s “Drug Culture”

Main Concepts:

Rejection of materialism

Rebellion against institutions

Emphasis on expression of the self

Psychedelic art similar to surrealism

Excessive use of drugs

Main drugs in use included LSD, Marijuana, & Heroin

Harvard professor

Timothy Leary

encouraged students to experiment with drugs, LSD in particular

Project MK Ultra government experimentation

Appreciation of music

Popular bands include The Grateful Dead, The Doors, & Janis JoplinSlide36

Protesting the Vietnam War

Study showed those from the upper class were significantly less likely to be drafted

One of many points of protest

1967-over 100K demonstrators swarmed the pentagon to protest the war

1968-SDS & African American Radicals take over Columbia University

NYPD took action & the protest was shut down a week later

Aggressive action taken by authorities prompted many more sit-downs & various other protestsSlide37

“Black Power”

“Black Power”-called for African Americans to take matters into their own hands, usually through violence

Poor living conditions & overall attitude of social reform prompted Civil Rights movement

MLK led passive anti-poverty crusade

April, 1968: MLK assassinated

Violent forms of protest more widespread & popular

African-Americans felt passive movement wasn’t effective

Primary advocate for “Black Power”-

Stokely Carmichael,

leader of Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)

“Political power comes through the barrel of a gun”Slide38

Ethnic Nationalism

Other ethnic groups took after the Civil Rights Movement

The united effort of all ethnicities led to the Ethnic Heritage Studies Act being passed in 72’

Cesar Chavez founded the National Farm Workers’ Association (NFWA) in

Chicanos won federal mandate for bilingual educationSlide39

Women’s Liberation

Betty Friedan-

The Feminine Mystique

Claimed women felt as though they had no worth outside of childbearing, domestic responsibilities, & limited jobs

Founded National Organization for Women (NOW) in 1966

Multiple issues discussed

1964 Civil Rights Act aided in creating equality in the workplace

Made it illegal to hire someone based on gender

Advocated pro-choice with regards to abortion

Also fought for tougher rape legislation

1972: Congress sent Equal Rights Amendment to the statesSlide40

Vietnam Undermines Johnson

Failure to contain Vietcong offensive tainted Johnson’s chances of getting reelected

Nixon’s winning of the election demonstrates nation’s desire for change concerning the war

Tet Offensive of 1968 proves to be the turning point of the war

Vietnam seems unwinnable afterwards

After the offensive Johnson begins preparations for a

peace negotiation

Johnson decides in March to refrain from taking a second termSlide41

The Democrats Divide

Anti-war movement in full swing by election time

Chicago Democratic convention swamped by protest

Three Democratic contenders:

Minnesota Senator Eugene McCarthy

Attorney General Robert Kennedy (assassinated during campaign)

Hubert Humphrey (Selected)

LBJ’s actions hurt the entire Democratic party & their chances of winningSlide42

The Republican Resurgence

Republicans, on the contrary, firmly united behind Richard Nixon

Many counted him out after losing 62’ election for governor of California

Third party candidate George C. Wallace stole votes from the Democrats

This allowed Nixon to defeat Hubert Humphrey in the election of 68’Slide43

The End of an Era

Election brought an end to an era of liberal reform

Republican win was a sign that many were concerned with the new drug culture

Americans were looking for a less reactionary government & did not want to be involved in another war like Vietnam