Chapter Ageism The Strange Case of Prejudice Against - PDF document

Chapter2 Ageism:TheStrangeCaseofPrejudice AgainsttheOlderYou ToddD.Nelson InaÞeldthathasonlybeeninexistenceforabout36years, 1 researchonage tiondevotedtoaproblemthataffectsmillionsofolderadults.Aswebegintoshed lightonthecausesandconsequencesofageprejudice,wecanstarttodeviseways toreduceagestereotyping,therebyenhancingthequalityoflifeforallolderadults. theirways,theyaregrumpy,andtheycanÕtordonÕtwanttolearnnewthings. WhereisthestereotypeorprejudiceinstatingthoseÒtruthsÓabouttheelderly? Whilethosecharacteristicsmaybetrueforanumberofolderpeople,itisalsotrue commonbehavioralorpersonalitycharacteristic,theyareengaginginstereotyping. Allstereotypesareincorrectbytheirverynature,becausetheyerroneouslyassume T.D.Nelson( B ) CA95382,USA e-mail:tnelson@csustan.edu PortionsofthistalkaretakenfromNelson(2007). 1 ImarkthebeginningofresearchonageismwiththecoiningofthetermÒage-ismÓbyButler (1969). 37 38 T.D.Nelson ahomogenythatsimplydoesnotexist.So,theseeminglyinnocuousstatementÒold peopledonÕtlikechangeÓisandalwayswillbeincorrectbecausetherewillalways bemanyofolderadultsforwhomthatisnÕttrue.Comingbacknowtothemorebasic question:Istheresuchathingasageism?Dothosesimplestereotypestranslateinto negativefeelings(prejudice)againstolderpersons? Theansweristhat,eversinceresearchershaveaskedpeopleabouttheirattitudes towardelders,backinthe1950s,andcontinuingtoday,whetheryougetaresponse thatsoundsrifewithprejudicedependsonhowyouaskthequestion(Tuckman &Lorge,1953).Ifyouasksomeone,ÒDoyouhavenegativefeelingsaboutyour grandmother,oryourolderboss,ortheelderlywomanwhoworksattheßower store?ÓTheywouldlikelyreply,ÒOfcoursenot!Thosepeoplearedear,dearpeople inmylife.Ihavenothingbutaffectionforthem.ÓIfthatsamepersonisasked ÒDoyouthinkalloldpeoplearepoordrivers,orthat,generally,olderpeopleare grumpy?Óyouaremorelikelytogetanswersthatendorsetheagingstereotypesyou justexpressed.WhenpeopleareaskedabouttheirattitudestowardÒolderpeople,Ó theimagethatisevokedisanegativestereotypeaboutanolderperson.However, whenoneisaskedtoevaluateaspeciÞcolderperson(co-worker,boss,friend,for example),fewerexamplesofold-agerelatedstereotypescometomind,andthe attitudeismuchmorelikelytobepositive(Crockett&Hummert,1987).Ageism doesindeedexist,andlaterIwilltalkabout(1)whyitissohardtoidentify,and (2)howittranslatesintodiscriminationagainsttheelderly.Beforewedothat,letÕs discussforamomentwhereageistattitudescomefrom. PlantingtheSeedofAgeism History YoungerpeopledidnÕtusetohaveprejudicetowardolderpeople.Infact,being oldwasregardedasaprivilege,andolderpersonswereoftenthemostpowerful, mostrespectedpersonsinavillage/community/group,duetotheirmoreextensive knowledgebaseandgreatermemoryforthehistoryofthegroup.Inbiblicaltimes, olderpeoplewereregardedasgivenalonglifebyGodtofulÞlladivinepurpose (Branco&Williamson,1982).However,twoeventsledtothedownturninhow olderpeoplewereviewed.TheadventoftheprintingpresstookawaytheeldersÕ uniquestatusasthesolerepositoryofinformation.Theotherevent,theindustrial revolution,requiredfamiliestobemoremobile,andabletoadapttochangesinthe marketquickly,andolderpersonslivinginanextendedfamilystructurewereoften ejectedbytheyoungerrelativesinfavorofincreasingthemobilityofthefamily. CulturalViews AnyonewhohasbeenexposedtoUSculture,evenperipherally,quicklylearnsthat theUSAhasaculturalbiasinfavorofyouth.Movies,television,magazines,and advertiserswhosupportthosemediaallcatertotheyoungestdemographicinour 2Ageism:TheStrangeCaseofPrejudiceAgainsttheOlderYou39 population.Whythisfocusonyouth?Largely,Iwillargue,itstemsfromourfearof aging.IntheUSA,wehaveatremendousanxietyabouttheagingprocessanddeath (Nelson,2002).Oldageisstereotypicallyperceivedasanegativetime,whereupon theolderpersonsuffersdeclinesinphysicalattributes,mentalacuity,lossofiden- tity(retirementfromjob),lossofrespectfromsociety,andincreasingdependence onothers(Kite&Wagner,2002).Americansenjoytheirindividualityandfeelings ofcontroloverwhathappenswiththeirownbodies.Aginganddeathareseenas outofourcontrolandthatproducesfeelingsoffearandanxiety.Alongwithnoper- ceivedcontrolovertheagingprocess(andeventualdeath),manyAmericansalso viewdeathastheendoftheirself.ThebeliefthatoneÕsselfhasaÞxedendingis alsoquiteanxiety-provoking.Contrastthatwiththosewhobelievethattheyhavea spiritthatliveson(eitherinHeaven,Nirvana,orsomeotherspiritualplace,orvia reincarnation),andtheseindividualstendtohaveadifferentviewontheirlife.Life isjustonephaseofaneternaljourneythattheyhavebeenon.Theybelievethatthey willcontinuethisjourneyindeÞnitely.Theseindividualsviewaginginmuchthe samewayasthoseintraditionalEasterncultures.InEasterncultures,theself,life, anddeathareallinterconnectedwithintheperson.Death,inthisview,isnotsome- thingthatisfeared.Rather,itisseenasawelcomerelieffromlifeÕstravails.Deathis seenasapassagetoadifferentspiritualexistence,whereonecanjoinhis/herelders (Butler,Lewis,&Sunderland,1991).TraditionalEasterncultures,asaresult,have hadlittleornoanxietyaboutdeathandaging(Levy&Langer,1994).Infact,they viewedolderadultswithmuchreverence.Olderpersonsweregivenspecialstatus andpowerintheirsociety. TimesarechanginginEasterncultures,however,andsoareattitudestoward olderpersons.Astheseculturesbecomemoremodernized,andfeeltheinßuence ofWesterncultures,capitalism,andindividualisticvalues,theybegintofeelless obligatedtomaintaintraditionsofÞlialpiety(motivation,emotion,andintergener- ationalreciprocityinsupportofoneÕselderlyparents)(Ng,2002;Williamsetal., 1997).Ng(2002)suggeststhatitisanexaggerationtosaythatEasterncultures reveretheirelders,whileWesternculturesabandonthem.Rather,researchindicates thatthereisquiteadegreeofvariabilityinEasternattitudestowardolderadults (Williamsetal,1997).Williamsetal.(1997)foundthatKoreanshadthemostposi- tiveattitudestowardtheirelders,whileChinesepersonssurveyedexpressedamuch morenegativeattitudetowardolderpersons.Japanesepeopleappeartobeexperts atmaskingtheirderisionforolderpersons.NaitoandGielen(1992)foundabigdis- tinctionbetweenÒtatemaeÓ(howoneoughttobehaveandfeel)andÒhoneÓ(howone actuallybehavesandfeels).Onthesurface,formanyJapanese,isamaskofrespect- ingandhonoringelders,whilejustbelowthemaskliesadismissalofeldersassilly. TheRootofAgeismIsFearofDeath TerrorManagementTheory Aninterestingtheorythatparsimoniouslyexplainsonewaythatageismcanarise isÒterrormanagementtheoryÓ(TMT;Greenberg,Pyszczynski,&Solomon,1986; 40 T.D.Nelson Pyszczynski,Greenberg,Solomon,Arndt,&Shimel,2004;Solomon,Greenberg,& Pyszczynski,1991).AccordingtoTMT,cultureandreligionarecreationsthatgive orderandmeaningtoourexistence,andthisprotectsusfromfrighteningthoughtsof oneÕsownmortalityandtheseemingrandomnatureoflife.Self-esteemisderived frombelievingthatonehasaplaceandpurposeintheworld.Thus,accordingto TMT,self-esteemservesasabufferagainstanxietyassociatedwiththoughtsof oneÕsmortality. AccordingtoTMT,becauseolderpeopleareareminderofourimpendingmor- tality,peopleintheUSAtendtoassociatenegativefeelingswith(andascribe negativequalitiesto)olderadults.Theanxietyandfearthatareassociatedwith deathleadyoungpeopletoblameolderpeoplefortheirplightÐgettingolder. Insodoing,theycandenythethoughtthattheytoowillgrowold(anddie).By blamingtheolderperson,stereotypinghim/her,andtreatingelderswithpity,anger, irritation,orpatronizingspeech,youngerpeopleareabletotrickthemselvesinto believingthattheywillnoteventuallydie.Thisderogationofolderpeopleonly servestocreateaperpetualcycleofever-increasingprejudiceagainstolderper- sons.Themorenegativelyyoungerpeopletreatolderpersons,theweakerandmore negativelyolderpeopleareperceived,andtheincreasinglynegativewayolderpeo- pleappear,inturnonlyincreasestheanxietyyoungpeoplehaveaboutdeath,and thisampliÞestheirtendencytoactinageistwaystowardolderpeople(Martens, Goldenberg,&Greenberg,2005).Muchempirical(Martensetal.,2005;Martens, Greenberg,Schimel,&Landau,2004)andtheoretical(Greenberg,Schimel,& Mertens,2002)evidencesupportstheutilityofthistheoryasitisappliedtoward ourunderstandingoftheoriginsofageism. AgeismIsInstitutionalized ThemainreasonwhymostpeopleintheUSAneverthinkofageisminthesame waytheythinkofsexismorracism(thatis,oneoftheÒmajorÓtypesofprejudice, andassuch,onetobeawareofandavoid)isthatitisquiteinstitutionalizedin America(Nelson,2002,2006).Ifyouthinkaboutit,thereisnoothergrouplike theelderlyaboutwhichwefeelfreetoopenlyexpressstereotypesandevensubtle hostility.Thisisbecausemostofus,asImentionedattheoutsetofmyremarks today,believethatwearenÕtreallyexpressingnegativestereotypesorprejudice,but merelyexpressingtruestatementsaboutolderpeoplewhenweutterourstereotypes. Wealsotakeourcuesfromsocietyastotheacceptabilityandbenignnatureofour ÒtruthsÓaboutaging.Televisionshowsdepictolderpersonsalongstereotypiclines (Bell,1992),childrenÕsbooksdepictclassicfairytalesinwhichthevillainisusu- allyanolderperson(Ansello,1978),andevengreetingcardsperpetuateageism. Greetingcards?Yes.Thinkaboutitforamoment.Inanygreetingcardstore,partic- ularlytheÒbirthdayÓgreetingcardssection,onecommonmessageiscommunicated, nomatterwhichcardyoupickup:sorrytohearyouareanotheryearolder.Birthdays areseenasaslidedownward,towardfailinghealth,failingmentalacumen,and death,andtheycertainlyarenotoccasionstocelebrate.Asaninteresting,yetstark 2Ageism:TheStrangeCaseofPrejudiceAgainsttheOlderYou41 contrasttoillustratehowincrediblyopenyetperniciousthisageismisinbirthday cards,thinkabouttheoutragethatwouldensueiftherewasasectionofcardsthat communicatedthemessageÒsorrytohearyouÕreBlackÓorÒhahahatoobadyouÕre JewishÓÐyeah,itwouldnÕtgooversowell.Sowhydoessocietyallow,andeven condonethesamemessagedirectedagainstolderpersons? ApopularlineofbirthdayÒgagÓgiftshasathemeofÒoverthehillÓattachedto variousitems,fromblackballoons,toaplasticgravestone(!).Themessageisclear: agingisbad,andwemakefunofpeoplewhoaregettingolder.LetÕsstoptothink aboutthatforamoment.Youhaveastorepeddlingitemswhicharenot-sosubtly tellingyouÒhereishowsocietyviewsaging,andYOUasanolderpersonÓÐandit isnÕtverypretty.Howwouldthatmakeyoufeelifyouwereanolderadult?WeÕll explorethatabitfurtherinafewminutes.Foryoungerpersons,thisisjustone moremessagefromsocietysayingÒsocietyatlargecondonestheopenexpression ofnegativeviewsofagingandolderpeopleÓandassuch,theyoungerpersonmay feelmorecomfortableopenlyexpressingsuchprejudiceagainstolderadults,feeling perfectlyÞneaboutdoingso,becausehe/shelikelywouldnÕtrecognizeitasaÒbadÓ typeofprejudice,condemnedbysociety. AnotherindicatorofhowentrenchedageismisinUSculturecanbefoundinthe drivetohidephysicalsignsofaging.ArecentsurveybytheNationalConsumerÕs League(2004)foundthat90millionAmericanseachyear(andthatislikelyacon- servativeestimate)purchaseproductsorundergomedicalprocedurestohidethe physicalindicatorsoftheirage.Peoplebuycreamsormakeuptohideagespots,to eliminatewrinklesintheirskin,andhairdyetochangetheirhaircolorfromgreyto amoreÒyouthful-lookingÓcolor(anythingbutgrey).Plasticsurgeryisincreasingly popular,asawaytoattempttostaylookingyounger.Asmenage,averycommon physicalsignofagingisthelossofhairontheirhead.Men,itappearsarejustas afraidoflookingolderaswomenare,asevidencedbythepopularityoftoupees, wigs,plugs,implants,andeventheillusionofafullerheadofhairviaaspray-on substance(!).Whyarepeoplewillingtospendsomuchmoney,andundergounnec- essaryriskymedicalprocedurestohidephysicalsignsofaging?Societytellsusthat agingisbad.Andpeoplebelieveitratherunquestioningly. YoungerPeopleSpeakDifferentlytoElderlyPersons Interestingresearchhasfoundthatevenpeoplewithverypositiveattitudestoward theelderlyoftenseemtospeaktoolderadultsinverydifferentwaysfromhow theycommunicatewiththeirpeers.Onetypeofspeech,calledÒoveraccommo- dation,Óentailstheyoungerpersonbecomingoverlypolite,speakinglouderand slower,exaggeratingtheirintonation,andtalkinginsimplesentences(Giles,Fox, Harwood,&Williams,1994).Thisalsomanifestsitselfinthedownplayingof seriousthoughtsorconcerns,orshieldingeldersfromÒconfusingÓorÒupset- tingÓinformation(Grainger,Atkinson,&Coupland,1990).Kemper(1994)found overaccommodationquiterampantinhisstudyofnursinghomeworkers.Another typeofspeechiscalledÒbabytalk(Caporael&Culbertson,1986).ÓThoseusingthis 42 T.D.Nelson typeofspeechtendtospeakwithahighpitch,exaggeratedintonation,muchlike theoveraccommodationstyle,butthistypeofspeechisdistinguishedinhowitis virtuallyidenticaltothestyleusedwhenspeakingtobabies.Infact,whenCaporael (1981)Þlteredoutthecontentofthespeechofonespeakingtoanelderlywithbaby talk,andanotherpersonspeakingtoababy,shefoundthatthetwospeechstyles werevirtuallyidentical.Thesespeechstylesderivefromourstereotypesaboutolder personsasalmostchild-likeintheirlevelofcognitivefunctioninganddependency onyoungeradults. Oneinterestingthingaboutthisisthatnotallolderpeopledislikebeingspokento inthisfashion.Researchshowsthatthosewhoareinworsephysicalormentalhealth Þndsuchspeechstyles(babytalkandoveraccommodation) comforting becauseit communicatestotheolderadultthattheyoungerpersonisawareofthedependency relationshipthere,andthattheywillbetakencareofbytheyoungeradult(Caporael, Lukaszewski,&Culbertson,1983). SomemorelightmaybeshedontheseinterestingÞndingswithdataIobtained (Nelson,2004).Isentsurveystoover3,300olderadultsinCalifornia,whichasked themwhethertheyhadeverexperiencedageprejudiceordiscrimination,andhow theyreactedtoit.Datafromthe852returnedsurveysindicatedamajordifference inthewayolderadultsrespondedtothesurvey,dependingontheirage.Neugarten (1974)saidthatthoseadultsfrom55to74reallyviewthemselvesdifferently,as younger,thanthose75andolder.NeugartenfoundthatmanyoftheseÒyoung-oldÓ adultsstillhadolderparentsliving,andtheytendedtoviewÒoldageÓ(andstereo- types,andhealthandmentalfailingsassociatedwithage)assomethingassociated withtheirparentÕsgeneration.Thoseolderthan75(whoNeugartencalledtheÒold- oldÓ)werelesslikelytohavethisperspective(becausenoonewasolderthanthem, sothetermÒoldpeopleÓ must thereforebeinreferencetothem).Mydataindicated thattheold-oldindividualsdidnotperceiveanyagediscriminationorprejudice intheirdailylives.Theyalsoreportedthatiftheywerevictimofageistbehavior, itwouldnotbotherthem.However,theÒyoung-oldÓreportedthatthey had expe- riencedageism,andthatwhenitoccurs,itmakesthem veryupset .Theseresults mayreßectadesireoftheold-oldtoprotecttheirself-esteembydenyingthatthey arepartofastigmatizedgroup.Thereactionoftheyoung-oldtoageism(ofbeing upset)alsomaysuggestthattheyoung-oldwanttodelayasmuchaspossibletheir entryintotheold-oldgroup,becausetheyfearhowtheyÕllbetreated(asstigmatized persons). But ... OurBrainsCan’tHelpBeingAgeist Ageistattitudesareactivatedautomaticallyinsocialperception,muchlikeany otherstereotypeaboutotherstigmatizedgroups.Forexample,PerdueandGurtman (1990)foundthatwhenyoungerpersonsareprimedwiththewordÒoldÓtheyare fastertosubsequentlyrecognizenegativetraitwords,andslowertorecognizepos- itivetraitwords.Conversely,whentheyareprimedwiththewordÒyoungÓ,they arefastertolaterrecognizepositivetraitwords,andslowertorecognizenegative traitwords. 2Ageism:TheStrangeCaseofPrejudiceAgainsttheOlderYou43 Inanotherstudy,Nosek,Banaji,andGreenwald(2002)reporteddatacollected fromtheImplicitAssociationTest(IAT;Greenwald,McGhee,&Schwartz,1998) onwhatcanbereferredtoasÒimplicitageism.ÓTheIATmeasuresimplicitattitudes (likeageistbeliefs,orstereotypicalassociationsbetweencategoryandcharacteris- tics).ImplicitattitudesareÒintrospectivelyunidentiÞed(orinaccuratelyidentiÞed) tracesofpastexperiencethatmediatefavorableorun-favorablefeeling,thought,or actiontowardsocialobjectsÓ(Greenwald&Banaji,1995,p.5). Nosekandhiscolleaguesfoundthatregardlessoftheageoftherespondent, allrespondentshadsigniÞcantlynegativeimplicitattitudestowardolderpersons. Thesedata,coupledwiththeprimingstudybyPerdueandGurtman(1990),provide supportforthenotionthatpeoplehavestrongnegativebeliefsassociatedwitholder persons,andtheseattitudesoperatewithoutconsciousawarenesstoinßuenceour consciousthought,behavior,andfeelingstowardolderpeople. Doesthatmeanthatwearedoomedtobeprejudicedtowardolderpeople, becauseageismseemstobeautomatic?No.AsDevineshowedinherfamous 1989paper,seeingorthinkingaboutastereotypedgroupdoesindeedautomat- icallyactivatestereotypeconceptsandinformationrelatedtothatstigmatized group,inbothpeoplewhobelieveinthetruthofthosenegativeattitudes(high- prejudicedpersons)andthosewhodonotbelieveinthosenegativeattitudes (low-prejudicedpersons).But,low-prejudicedpersons,becausetheyaresomoti- vated,areabletooverridetheinßuenceoftheautomaticactivationofthestereotypes andinsteadthinkofthestigmatizedpersonontheirownmeritsasanindi- vidual(formoreonthemalleabilityofimplicitattitudes,seeDasgupta,2009). High-prejudicedpersonsarenotmotivatedtochangetheirstereotypeaboutthe group,andthereforedonÕtoverridetheautomaticallyactivatednegativeattitude. So,whiletheactivationoftheageiststereotypesmaybeautomatic,theinßuence ofthoseiscertainlyenvironmentalinthatthelearninghistory,thekindofper- sontheperceiveris(e.g.valuesystemaboutequality,civilrights,etc.),andtheir motivationtooverridethatautomaticactivation(Monteith,Zuwerink,&Devine, 1994). Helper,HealThySelf Itisanunfortunatetruththatageismevenpersistsamongthosewhosejobitis tohelpolderpersons(Troll&Schlossberg,1971).Researchhasfoundthatsome physiciansandotherhealthcareprofessionalstendtoregardolderpatientsthrough agestereotypes,suchthattheolderpatientismorelikelytobeviewedasÒdepress- ing,senile,untreatable,orrigidÓ(Reyes-Ortiz,1997,p.831).Workingwitholder patientsisnottypicallyviewedasdesirable,forsomemedicalstudents,because olderpatientspresentwithhealthconcernsthatarebelievedtobelessamenable totreatment,thoughthereisoftenlittlebasisforthatassumptionotherthana stereotypeaboutagingandhealthissues(Madey&Gomez,2003). Mentalhealthprofessionalsarejustaslikelytoharborageistbeliefsastheir physiciancounterparts(Atchley,1982;GarÞnkel,1975).Kastenbaum(1964)refers totheÒreluctanttherapistÓinaddressingthisissue.Thesetherapiststendtoshun 44 T.D.Nelson olderclientsbecausetheybelievethatolderpeopleoftendonÕthaveanyserious psychologicalissuesthatmerittherapy,andthattheyarejustlonelyandwantto exploitthetherapistasacaptivelisteningear.Siegel(2004)afÞrmsthatpsychiatrists alsohaveanagebiaswhenitcomestodiagnosingproblemsforwhicholderpersons seekprofessionalhelp.Siegelarguesthatpsychiatristsneedtotakeanewview ofoldage,appreciatingthetremendouslearningandpersonalgrowththatolder adultshaveachieved.Psychiatristsshouldalsobeawarethatolderadultshavemany differentlossesthatyoungerpeopledonotface,andtheyarealsoconfrontedwith theoppressiveyouth-focusedsociety,whichubiquitouslypresentsnegativeviews ofolderpersons. Conclusion Researchonageismhasashorthistory,relativetothegeneralÞeldofprejudice research.However,theavailabledataallowustomakeseveralconclusionswitha degreeofconÞdence.First,ageprejudiceexists,anditismulti-faceted.Peoplehave multiple,oftencontradictoryattitudestowardolderindividuals(Cuddy&Fiske, 2002;Cuddy,Norton,&Fiske,2005;Fiske,Cuddy,Glick,&Xu,2002).Second, ageismistiedinparttothatcultureÕsviewsof(orfearsabout)death.Ageismis alsotiedtotheemphasisthatacultureplacesonchange,mobility,andspeedinthe workforce.Thegreatertheemphasisonthesethings,themorelikelysocietywill perceivetheolderworkerasnotcompetitive,butratherhe/shemayberegardedas aburdenontheresourcesofsociety. Third,ageismisinstitutionalizedintheUSA.Thefocusonyouth,mobility, change,coupledwiththeintensefearofdeathinAmericancultureleadstoderoga- tionofolderpeople,andanythingassociatedwithaging.Jokesaboutgettingolder, withtheimplicitmessagethatitisbadorsadtogetolder,areregardedasbenign humor.Americansbelievethatimplicitmessage,however.Americansspendbillions ofdollarsonproductsandsurgeriesdesignedtohidesignsthattheyaregrowing older.Fourth,ageismissopervasivethatitisfoundevenamongthosewhosejob istohelpolderpersons.Thisofcoursehastremendousimplicationsforthephysi- calandmentalhealthoftheolderpatient,asagestereotypescanbiasthetreatment recommendationsthatthetherapistorphysicianhasfortheolderpatient. Finally,ageistbehaviorisonlyperceivedasoffensivebythoseolderpersonswho arehighfunctioning(physicallyandmentally).Olderpeoplewhohavephysical and/ormentaldeÞcienciestendtobelievethatageistbehavioractuallycommuni- catesahelpingrelationshipbetweentheyoungerpersonandtheolderindividual, andthatcommunication(thoughitisageist)iscomfortingtothem. Thereismuchwehaveyettounderstandaboutageism,however.Whilewehave aprettygoodhandleonhowageprejudicestarts,andwhatmaintainsit(samesocial- cognitiveandmotivationalprocessesthatmaintainmostotherprejudices),mostof whatwedonÕtyetknowconcernshowbesttoreduceoreliminateageism.Weneed tofurtherexplorethenatureofthefearofdeathinAmericansociety.Ifwecan begintounderstandthesourceofthisfear,wemaybeabletodesigneducational 2Ageism:TheStrangeCaseofPrejudiceAgainsttheOlderYou45 programsthatcan,fromanearlyage,teachpeopletonotfeardeath.Oncethisfear isabated(oreliminated),agreatmotivationtocreatestereotypesabouttheelderly (aspredictedbyTerrorManagementTheory)wouldbeeliminated. Effortsshouldbedirectedtowardincreasingthestatusofolderadultsinsociety. Onewaytodothisistocreatemoreopportunitiesforolderadultstocontinueto havetiestotheworkforce,sothattheymaycontinuetocontributetheirwisdomand experiencetosocietyandtoteachtheiryoungerco-workerstheskillsandinforma- tiontheyhavelearned.Thiswillhaveatremendouspositiveeffectonthementaland physicalwell-beingofolderadults,becauseresearchhasshownthatamajorlossof oneÕsidentityoccurswhenoneretiresfromwork,andthisisoftenaverytraumatic adjustmentfortheolderperson(Nelson,2002). Finally,agestereotypescanbegintobeeliminatedwithaconcerted,comprehen- siveeducationaleffortstartinginpreschool,andcontinuingthroughouttheschool years,andbeyondintoothermedia,whichcommunicatesthefactthatagingisnoth- ingtofear,orbeembarrassedabout.Ratheritisanormalpartoflife,andthatbeing olderisapositivething.Wisdom,experience,andlifeperspectiveoftenaccom- panytheagingprocess.Youngerpeopleshouldbetaughtthattheycanlearnmuch fromolderpersons.Eldersshouldberespected,notpitied.Oureffortsshouldbe directedtowardtheseandothermethodsofreducingoreliminatingagestereotypes, andenhancingthestatusofeldersinAmericansociety.Admittedly,reversingan institutionalized,entrenchedageismwilltaketime.Butageprejudiceresearchers can,throughtheseefforts,enhancethecurrentqualityoflifeformillionsofolder Americans,andforfuturegenerationsofolderpersons. References Ansello,E.F.(1978).Age-ism:Thesubtlestereotype. ChildhoodEducation , 54 (3),118Ð122. Atchley,R.(1982).Theagingself. 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