CHERYL A. WILSON - PDF document

CHERYL A. WILSON USTENANDTHEROVINCEOFloway notes, Òwith the exception ofAnne Elliot, all the heroines either meettheir lovers at balls or their creator provides them with a crucial scene at aballÓ(155). Austen scholars have noted the indisputable importance ofdancein the novels, usually arguing that the prominent ballroom scenes stand asmicrocosms ofAustenÕs social world. However, in Persuasion, Austen appearsto have abandoned dance and relegated Anne Elliot to the status ofÒheroineWhile there is very little dancing in Persuasion, images andrhetoric ofEnglish country-dance appear at key moments in the text,enabling Austen to employ time, space, and physicality to advance a consid-eration ofsocial mobility. Attention to dance highlights the tension betweenthe body and the spaces within which it can move, and in turn reinforcesAustenÕs approach to social mobility in the novelÑshe uses a rhetoric ofdance to explore the role desire plays in negotiating boundaries between theindividual and society. In Persuasion, Austen depicts society as a set ofsepa-rate closed circles, modeled on country-dance formations, and uses these toillustrate the possibilities forÑand yet limitations ofÑindividual mobilitywithin established social structures. AustenÕs use ofdance and the dance metaphor can most eectively be 55 CHERYL A. WILSON Dance, Physicality, and Social Mobility in Jane AustenÕs Persuasion i Dance, Physicality, in Jane AustenÕs Persuasion 56 understood ifPersuasionis Þrst situated within the landscape ofRegency Erasocial dance. The country-dance with which Austen and her characters wouldhave been familiar was Òa social dance ofEnglish origin in which a number ofcouples perform a set pattern ofÞguresÓ(ÒCountry DanceÓ254).inclusive deÞnition, Òcountry-danceÓincluded square dances in which fourcouples stood in a square formation and the movement ofthe dance occurredin, around, and across the square. This square form, which illustrates theFrench inßuence on English country-dance, became increasingly popular inthe second halfofthe eighteenth century: Òthe square form ofthe contredanseor cotillon, gained some popularity in England through works such as G. A.Critical Observations on the Art ofDancing (c. 1770)Ó(ÒCountry DanceÓThese square dances were called ÒContredanse Franaise,Óand thelongways dances became known as ÒContredanse Anglaise.ÓThus, Òcountry-danceÓwas used comprehensively to signify most types ofsocial dance andspeciÞcally to refer to longways dances.The ÒContredanse Franaise,Óknown as the ÒcotillionÓ(or ÒcotillonÓ) in England, used the same steps aslongways dances (Contredanse Anglaise), changing only the form (thearrangement ofthe dancers). In a dance manual, Òa dance might be given intwo forms so that it could be danced either as a Cotillon or as a LongwaysProgressive setÓ(Wood 95). By the beginning ofthe nineteenth century, thelongways dances and cotillions were phased out in favor ofthe quadrilleÑadance that retained the square formation ofthe cotillion, but employed lessenergetic movements. Thus, the cotillion occupies a transitory place in thehistory ofEnglish social dance because it was adapted from the seventeenth-and eighteenth-century longways dances and introduced the square forma-tions that would characterize much ofnineteenth-century social dance. Thelegacy ofthe cotillion was noted in the Ball-Room Preceptor (London 1843):,that once universal favorite in the ball-room has now also, ingreat measure, been superseded, at least in name; but Ôeven in its ashes live itswonted Þres,Õ for its Þgures have been cut up to form new quadrillesÓ(qtd. inLike the cotillion, Persuasionoccupies a space between the eigh-teenth and nineteenth centuries; the novel both structurally and thematicallyfollows and deviates from eighteenth-century traditions.The role ofthe square formation in country-dance has been emphasizedPersuasionis modeled on this dance form. SpeciÞc references todances and dance Þgures in AustenÕs writings are scarce, but both the preva-lence ofsquare dances in the late eighteenth century as well as the turn-of-the-century movement toward almost exclusively square dances suggest that Austen and her readers would have been familiar with the cotillion. In addi-tion, Austen makes some speciÞc references to the cotillion. In NorthangerAbbey, Catherine Morland observes, Òthe cotillions were over, the country-dancing beginningÓ(74). Here, Austen uses the more exclusive deÞnition ofÒcountry-danceÓto refer to longways dances, which she dierentiates fromthe square-based cotillions. Austen, an accomplished country-dance player,also illustrated her familiarity with popular forms ofmusic and dance in a let-ter to her niece Fanny Knight: ÒMuch obliged for the grown to think pretty enough, though ofcourse they are inferior to the Cotil-lions ofmy own dayÓ(20Ð21 February 1817). This note, probably written toacknowledge the receipt ofsome sheet music, suggests that the newly fash-ionable quadrille rapidly spread to the countryside. In a cotillion, four couples change partners while moving through aseries ofset Þgures.Each couple has a place along one side ofthe dancesquare, and the dancersÕ movements are dictated by that location. Eighteenth-century dancing master Thomas Wilson describes the formation as such:ÒThe Top Couple is the Couple that commence the Dance; and the BottomCouple is the Couple that stand opposite, or the Third Couple from the Top.The Side Couples, or the Couples right and left, are those Couples on the rightand left hands ofthe Leading Couple; the Second Couple being on the right,and the Fourth Couple on the leftÓ(29). Throughout the dance, the move-ments ofindividuals or couples would be dictated by their starting positionwithin the closed set ofeight dancers. In The Quadrille and Cotillion PanoramaWilson provides illustrations that depict the proper arrangement ofthe setand emphasizes the importance ofÒalways preserving the Figure oftheDanceÓ(28). This particular formation is important to the structure ofcotil-Persuasion because both the dance and the novel stress theimportance ofestablishing and maintaining oneÕs place within the setBalls and dances are signiÞcant occasions because they provide oppor-tunities for socialization and courtship, and Jane Austen expresses the anal-ogy between marriage and country-dance in Henry TilneyÕs often-quotedÒI consider a country-dance as an emblem ofmarriage. Fidelityand complaisance are the principal duties ofboth; and those menwho do not chuse to dance or marry themselves, have no businesswith the partners or wives oftheir neighbors. . . . You will allow, 57 CHERYL A. WILSON Dance, Physicality, and Social Mobility in Jane AustenÕs Persuasion 58 that in both, man has the advantage ofchoice, woman only thepower ofrefusal; that in both, it is an engagement between manand woman, formed for the advantage ofeach; and that when onceentered into, they belong exclusively to each other till the momentofits dissolution.Ó(NA Henry TilneyÕs comparison ofmarriage to a country-dance illustrates thefunction ofdance in AustenÕs works. One ofthe most signiÞcant characteris-tics ofcountry-dance, which accounts for its status as a symbol ofmarriageand courtship, is its sexually charged nature. Country-dances are highlyerotic events because they bring the dancers into close physical contact,which would have been otherwise inappropriate. As Sulloway suggests, danc-ing was Òa socially sanctioned form ofsexual displayÓ(143). Numerous eigh-teenth- and nineteenth-century religious texts recognize the erotic nature ofsocial dances and strongly chastise those who engage in such amusements.May Christians Dance? answers the title question with an emphatic ÒNo,Ólist-ing a multitude ofreasons for this prohibition including the danceÕs ability toincite inappropriate passions: Our accusation is that the dance, instead ofaording an opportu-nity for mutually ennobling companionship between man andwoman, inspired with a chaste and sweet interfused remembranceoftheir contrasted relationship to each other,Ñthat the dance,instead ofthis, consists substantially ofa system ofmeans con-trived with more than human ingenuity to incite the instincts ofsex to action, however subtle and disguised at the moment, in itssequel the most bestial and degrading. We charge that here, andnot elsewhere, in the anatomy ofthat elusive fascination whichbelongs so peculiarly to the dance, we lay our scalpel upon thequivering secret oflife. Passion,Ñpassion transformed, ifyouplease, never so much, subsisting in no matter how many Þnelycontrasted degrees ofsensuality,Ñpassion, and nothing else, isthe true basis ofthe popularity ofthe dance. (Brookes 99Ð100)Illicit ballroom behaviors are also criticized in a pamphlet published for theTract Society ofthe Methodist Episcopal Society, which asks dancers, ÒAndwill any pretend that their minds can be in a devotional frame while steppingat the sound ofthe violin in the ballroom? Stop! and think a little. Would yoube willing to go from the ball chamber to the judgment seat ofChrist? Butyou are commanded to be always readyÓ(A Solemn Warning to Dancers Though Austen may not have been directly inßuenced by a Methodist tract,A Solemn Warning to Dancers May Christiansobject to the ways in which dancing distracts individuals from loftiermoral pursuits. Austen, however, reverses this situation by using dance toperpetuate a broader social and cultural commentary within her novel. Despite the amount ofattention given to dance in AustenÕs novels, Per-remains largely neglected, and for an obvious reason: it lacks thedance scenes that are so important in AustenÕs other works. Readers knowonly that evenings ended Òoccasionally in an unpremeditated little ballÓinwhich the heroine, Anne Elliot, does not participate because Òshe has quitegiven up dancingÓ(47, 72). Indeed, AnneÕs refusal to dance is cited as a signofher Òsad slide toward spinsterhoodÓ(Handler and Segal 92). Her role asaccompanist has also caused parallels to be drawn between Anne Elliot andJane Austen, who wrote to her sister Cassandra that she would Òpractisecountry dances, that we may have some amusement for our nephews & neices,when we have the pleasure oftheir companyÓ(27Ð28 December 1808). Sul-loway claims that dance plays a minimal role in PersuasionÒthinks that her dancing days are over, just as her creatorÕs were,Óand JoanGrigsby notes that though Austen still attended balls, by the time she reachedher thirties, she Òprobably considered herselfan onlookerÓ(157, 119). Thus,one reading ofthe lack ofdance in Persuasionsuggests that AustenÕs heroinedoes not dance because she is older and, at her age, Austen had probablyÒgiven up dancingÓas well. However, Austen remained an active, thoughunlikely, participant in balls. One week before her thirty-third birthday,Austen wrote to her sister, Òyou will not expect to hear that was asked todanceÑbut I wasÓ(9 December 1808). Given the correlation between danceand marriage in AustenÕs novels, separating Anne from the dancers is yetanother way for Austen to emphasize AnneÕs separation from society and thedance ofcourtship. AnneÕs unwillingness to join in places her in direct con-trast to the young, lively, and marriageable Musgrove sisters who Òwere wildfor dancingÓ(47). Though analyses ofdance in Persuasion focus primarily on the socialimplications ofnot dancing, the novelÕs conclusion has also received somecritical attention as a metaphoric representation ofdance. When Anne andWentworth reconcile, the narratorÕs reference to Òspirits dancingÓis consid-ered purely symbolic (240). Langdon Elsbree argues that dancing ÒÞguresprominentlyÓin this scene and Òis used as a metaphor which is made rhyth- 59 CHERYL A. WILSON Dance, Physicality, and Social Mobility in Jane AustenÕs Persuasion 60 mic by Jane AustenÕs use ofparallel structure among and within the sen-tencesÓ(ÒFidelity and ComplaisanceÓ134). Elsbree refers to the passage inwhich Anne and Charles Musgrove meet Captain Wentworth on the street inBath and Charles asks Wentworth to take Anne home. In ElsbreeÕs analysis,it is the movement ofthe language, not the characters, in this passage that isdancelike. However, this passage in fact functions, as I will demonstrate, as themissing ballroom scene that brings together the elements ofdance that haveinformed both the structure and themes ofthe novel.The structure ofPersuasionemploys the cotillionÕs complexities oftimeand space. Like a cotillion, in which eight dancers move through four loca-tions and execute steps in sets offour or eight beats, AustenÕs novel also cen-ters on patterns offour and eight. Most notable is the period ofeight yearsthat Anne Elliot and Frederick Wentworth have been separatedÑonly one ofthe multiple references to the importance oftime which prompts ClaudiaJohnson to call Persuasion Òa calculated tangle ofyears and datesÓin whichÒthe passage oftime itselfis foregroundedÓ(147). In addition, there are eightsingle people around whom the romantic storyline moves: Anne Elliot, Eliz-abeth Elliot, Louisa Musgrove, Henrietta Musgrove, Frederick Wentworth,William Elliot, Captain Benwick, and Charles Hayter. From these eightyoung people, eight dierent couplings are suggested over the course ofthenovel: Anne and William Elliot, Anne and Benwick, Anne and Frederick,Louisa and Frederick, Louisa and Benwick, Henrietta and Frederick, Henri-etta and Charles Hayter, and Elizabeth and William Elliot. This interchangeofpartners parallels the way individuals combine and recombine as couplesover the course ofthe dance. At the end ofthe dance, four couples are estab-lished; similarly, at the end ofthe novel, the characters have arranged them-selves into four couples: Anne and Frederick, Louisa and Benwick, Henriettaand Charles, and Mrs. Clay and William Elliot. William Elliot has changedpartners during the course ofthe dance and brought Mrs. Clay, whose socialstanding and previous marriage distance her from the others, into the set. Indoing this, William Elliot violates the rules ofcountry-dance, which state thatdancers must remain with their original partners for the duration ofthe set:ÒNo gentleman will leave his partner standing alone after having taken theßoorÓ(Bonstein4). This basic element ofballroom etiquette echoes the socialrules concerning the appropriate procedures for making and breaking en-gagements.The cotillion formation established by these individuals and theirromances also corresponds to the novelÕs use ofplace. The characters move between four major locations: Kellynch, Uppercross, Lyme, and Bath, and,appropriately, each ofthese locations is primarily associated with one ofthecouples. Kellynch saw the ßirtation ofElizabeth and William Elliot, Upper-cross was the place ofcourtship for Henrietta and Charles, Lyme broughtLouisa and Benwick together, and Bath was the site ofreconciliation for Anneand Frederick. These four places, each ÒhomeÓto one couple, parallel the fourpositions within the cotillion Þgure, each ofwhich is ÒhomeÓto one couple andthe place that the dancers come together at the end ofthe dance. In the dance,as in the novel, individuals and couples are characterized by their locationwithin the circle.Austen structures Persuasion around country-dance patterns to drawattention to the role ofindividual bodies and their ability to move betweenphysical locations in the novel and to foreground issues ofsocial mobility.Moreover, the use ofdance draws attention to the treatment ofthe body in thenovel. In social dancing, bodies are spectacularized; they are put on display inthe middle ofa room to be viewed by others. For example, dancing togetheris one way to announce budding romances. Aware ofthe publicity ofdance-ßoor courtship, Austen uses this device in Pride and Prejudicepotential relationship between Jane Bennet and Mr. Bingley, ÒÔhe actuallydanced with her twice; and she was the only creature in the room that he askeda second timeÕÓ(13), and in MansÞeld Park to explain the marriage ofMariaBertram and Mr. Rushworth, ÒAfter dancing with each other at a proper num-ber ofballs . . . an engagement . . . was entered intoÓ(39). Successful perfor-mance at a ball required an individual to both navigate the social territory anddisplay considerable skill in dancing. Dance manuals from the eighteenth andnineteenth centuries contain illustrations and discussions that explain theminutiae ofproper physical deportment. These may appear humorously com-plicated to contemporary readers, but an awareness ofthe particulars ofphys-ical carriage and movement was an indicator ofdecorum and gentilityÑthose who could not dance, such as Mr. Collins, were thought unbearable: ÒAperson well skilled in graceful and classic, steps, and unacquainted withÞgures, would certainly make a ridiculous appearance, beside confusing oth-ers in the setÓ(Ball-room Instructer ucter )A Treatise on the Theory and Prac-tice ofDancingprovides anxious dancers with detailed advice on how to movethe hand when presenting a card or letter to a lady: ÒThe hand must be wavedin a Serpentine line, but care must be taken that the line ofmovement be butgentle, and not too S-like and twirling, which excess would be a 61 CHERYL A. WILSON Dance, Physicality, and Social Mobility in Jane AustenÕs Persuasion 62 ridiculous,Óand regarding the movement ofthe arms in dancing, the Art ofDancingadvises, Òthe arm should be kept near the body, the handbrought gently before it, the elbow kept forward, and, without raising theshoulder, the arm is to be raised to the height ofthe breast, allowing theelbow to fold a little, in order to bring the hand before the breast, always tak-ing care to hold the arm in a rounded formÓ(qtd. in Aldrich 93, 94). As in acountry-dance, physical movement and placement are important in Persuasionbecause characters relate to one another on a physical level, through describ-ing bodies and engaging in physical contact. Austen uses the character ofSir Walter Elliot to help the reader see thebodies around which she structures her dancelike narrative. Sir Walter func-tions as a vehicle ofwhat Judith Butler terms Òformative discourse.ÓButlerexplains, Òthere is no reference to a pure body which is not at the same time afurther formation ofthat bodyÓ(10). Thus, Sir WalterÕs references to his ownand othersÕ appearance repeatedly bring the charactersÕ bodies to the atten-tion ofthe reader: Òcaught in Sir WalterÕs gaze, AustenÕs characters take on amore vivid physicality than her narrators ordinarily give themÓ(Warhol 10).Sir WalterÕs hyperconscious awareness ofthe body and its appearance islooked down upon by Austen, who Þlls the novel with his unattractive obser-vations about unattractive bodies, such as ÒÔthere certainly were a dreadfulmultitude ofugly women in Bath; and as for the men! they were inÞnitelyworseÕÓ(142). However, though Sir WalterÕs focus on physical appearancereßects negatively on his own character, it provides the reader with valuable(though subjective) information about others and allows individuals, such asÒbloomlessÓAnne Elliot and Òweather-beatenÓMrs. Croft, to become visible. By presenting Sir WalterÕs obsession with his own physical appearanceat the opening ofthe novel, Austen sets the stage for Anne and Wentworth,whose relationship develops through a series ofencounters that are designedto draw attention to the charactersÕ bodies. The estranged lovers navigatetheir placement in several scenes where they seem to desire physical proxim-ity. In these scenes, Anne and WentworthÕs inability to speak much to oneanother keeps the focus on their physical actions because their bodies are notÒdisplacedÓby language.After an evening ofdancing at the Musgrove home,Wentworth takes AnneÕs seat at the piano for a moment. When Anne returns,they have an awkward encounter in which Wentworth begins, ÒÔI beg yourpardon, madam, this is your seat;Õ and though she immediately drew back witha decided negative, he was not to be induced to sit down againÓ(72). Neither Anne nor Wentworth wants to return to the site that, quite literally, repre-sents their physical unionÑa place occupied at dierent times by each oftheir bodies. Indeed, the picture ofAnne and Wentworth being in the sameplace at dierent times recalls their disjointed relationship and their inabilityto move on the same plane oftime and space long enough to aThis scene is replicated later where it is complicated by the presence ofWilliam Elliot; Wentworth appears to be somewhat jealous ofWilliamElliotÕs attentions to Anne, and William ElliotÕs presence prevents Anne andWentworth from connecting. The Bath party is at a concert when the issue ofseating arises once again. For the Þrst halfofthe concert, Anne is placed nextto William Elliot who Òhad manÏuvred so well, with the assistance ofhisfriend Colonel Wallis, as to have a seat by herÓ(186). After the interval, theseats are shued, and with Òa little scheming ofher own, Anne was enabledto place herselfmuch nearer the end ofthe bench than she had been before,much more within the reach ofa passer-by . . . with a vacant space at handÓ(189). Anne has made herselfavailable to Captain Wentworth, and her eortsare rewarded when he approaches her to converse about the concert. Theirconversation becomes almost comfortable, and Òhe even looked down towardsthe bench, as ifhe saw a place on it well worth occupyingÓ(190). However, asWentworth contemplates seating himselfnext to Anne, they are interruptedby William Elliot who demands AnneÕs assistance in reading the program,causing Wentworth to leave in jealous anger, and Anne to despair, Òit wasmisery to think ofMr. ElliotÕs attentions.ÑTheir evil was incalculableÓ(191). Throughout this scene, AustenÕs language draws attention to theimportance ofself-directed mobilityÑAnne, Wentworth, and William Elliotmake very deliberate decisions about where they would like to be physicallylocated, but only William ElliotÕs desires are fulÞlled. Like the instructions forperforming a country-dance, the social rules depicted in Persuasion an individualÕs ability to direct her own movements. Once again, Anne andWentworth have had a Ònear missÓ; they have brushed by one another, but arenot yet in step. Ofthe other courtship scenes, two in particular approximate the closephysical contact Anne and Wentworth would have had ifthey had been danc-ing together. Indeed, without a ballroom scene to bring the lovers into phys-ical contact, Austen must invent a series ofequally intimate, yet innocent,encounters. In both instances, Wentworth rescues Anne, Þrst by removing 63 CHERYL A. WILSON Dance, Physicality, and Social Mobility in Jane AustenÕs Persuasion 64 her clinging nephew from her neck and then by realizing she is tired andassisting her into the CroftÕs carriage. In these situations, Anne is unnervedby the erotic arousal that results from their close physical contact. Sexualdesire plays a large role in Anne and WentworthÕs courtship; Robyn Warholwrites, ÒAnneÕs physical desireÑfrustrated and Þnally gratiÞedÑis themotor that drives the narrativeÕs movement to its happy-ending closure in hersexual union with WentworthÓ(15). After Wentworth lifts the child from herneck, Anne is Òperfectly speechlessÓand experiences Òmost disordered feel-ingsÓ(80). Similarly, after being placed in the carriage by Òhis hands,ÓAnneÒwas very much aected by the view ofhis disposition towards herÓ(91).These scenes again invoke the idea ofdisplacement because the relationshipbetween Anne and Wentworth is so awkward that they can only uncon-sciously and indirectly experience their desire for one another. Butlerexplains, Òthe materiality ofbodily relations, prior to any individuation into aseparable body or, rather, simultaneous with it, is displaced onto the materi-ality oflinguistic relationsÓ(70). Anne and Wentworth illustrate the oppositeofthis phenomenonÑtheir bodies are more articulate than their words and(often unintentional) physical interactions displace verbal communication.Thus, their mutual desire is replaced with a strained and silent courtship. Austen unfolds the narrative ofAnne and WentworthÕs romancethrough a series ofscenes in which their physical bodies are centralized; how-ever, the emphasis on the physical does not objectify the body, but ratherspeaks to the sexual charge that underlies Anne and WentworthÕs relation-ship, just as it underlies the steps ofa country-dance:For it is no accident that the dance is what it is. It mingles thesexes in such closeness ofpersonal approach and contact as, out-side ofthe dance, is nowhere tolerated in respectable society. Itdoes this under a complexity ofcircumstances that conspire toheighten the impropriety ofit . . . there is the strange, confusingsense ofbeing individually unobserved among so many, while yetthe natural Ònoble shameÓwhich guards the purity ofman andwoman alone together is absent,Ñsuch is the occasion, and still,hour after hour, it whirls its giddy kaleidoscope around, bringinghearts so near that they almost beat against each other, mixing thewarm mutual breaths, darting the Þne personal electricity acrossbetween the meeting Þngers, ßushing the face and lighting theeyes with a quick language, subject often to gross interpretationson the part ofthe vile-hearted. (May Christians Dance? The writer ofthis ostensibly critical passage appears to be intimately familiarects ofdancing on the physiognomy ofmen and women, andAusten suggests that similar emotions result from the physical contact be-tween Anne and Wentworth, which is as erotic as the dancing ofElizabethBennet and Mr. Darcy or Emma Woodhouse and Mr. Knightley. Anne andWentworthÕs interactions always have a purpose other than sexual interac-tion, but, as in a dance, the attention to the physical body suggests that sex-ual desire is lurking just below the surface. In her Þrst meditations on Went-worthÕs impending arrival, Anne walks alone in the garden and wonders, Òafew months more, and ,perhaps, may be walking hereÓ(25). This scene, inwhich AnneÕs steps are placed alongside WentworthÕs, parallels the end ofthenovel when they Þnally express their mutual attraction while walking side byside along the streets ofBath.In the text ofPersuasion, as in a cotillion, individuals are mobile, yet theyare conÞned by a prescribed set ofmovements to a limited number ofloca-tions and a particular group ofindividuals. The patterns ofthe novel, whichmove the action between four dierent locations, speak to the importance ofself-directed movement and promote an individualÕs ability to move beyondthe personal and geographic limitations ofsocial circles and dance squares. Ina dance square, dancers move in a set ofÞxed patterns; similarly, most ofthecharacters in Persuasionmove within conÞned spheresÑsocial placementsthey cannot escape. The inßuence ofthese social sets results in behaviors,such as AnneÕs initial rejection ofWentworth, which are informed by theheroineÕs social position and relationship to other members ofher circle.Austen aligns the charactersÕ social movements with the movements ofcoun-try-dancers, and the danceÕs combined attention to individual bodies andÞxed group movements corresponds to the tension between individualdesires and the established social hierarchy. An exploration ofthis tensionreveals AustenÕs simultaneous support and critique ofthe existing set-basedsocial system; she recognizes the function ofsocial sets, yet argues that thesegroups should have ßexible boundaries that allow for the fulÞllment ofindi-vidual desires through social mobility.Social groups form and re-form over time, and individuals or groups ofindividuals can locate and re-locate themselves within digroups.The two largest social groups in Persuasionare the landed gentry,represented by the Elliot family (including the Walter Elliots, the Musgroves, 65 CHERYL A. WILSON Dance, Physicality, and Social Mobility in Jane AustenÕs Persuasion 66 and their various connections) and the navy (including the Crofts, theHarvilles, and Benwick). There are subdivisions within these sets, but most ofthe characters belong to one ofthe two circles, and those who do not, such asMrs. Smith, are noticeably marginalized. In Persuasion, evidence ofAustenÕsinterest in social mobility is illustrated by her exploration ofSir WalterÕsposition as a Þnancially distressed gentleman and the articulation ofMaryÕsfears that Charles HayterÕs social status renders him an inappropriate matchfor Henrietta. However, the most dramatic example ofAusten as a socially-conscious writer is AnneÕs permanent transition from the landed gentry tothe navy. The novelÕs opening chapters clearly illustrate AustenÕs interest insocial structures as well as the presence ofdistinct circles, and the attentionto self-deÞnition through physical placement initiated here recalls thedescriptions ofdance formations in which the dancersÕ roles and movementsdepend upon their physical placement in the set. Sir Walter ElliotÕs Barone-tage connects economic and political achievements to geographical location:ÒThen followed the history and rise ofthe ancient and respectable family, inthe usual terms: how it had been Þrst settled in Cheshire; how mentioned inDugdaleÑserving the oce ofHigh Sheri, representing a borough in threesuccessive parliaments, exertions ofloyalty, and dignity ofbaronet, in the Þrstyear ofCharles II., with all the Marys and Elizabeths they had marriedÓ(4).Through this description ofthe family history, Austen establishes the impor-tance ofsocial standing to the Elliots and emphasizes the connection betweensocial position and physical location. Persuasion continues to explore the function ofsocialpositionings by introducing Sir WalterÕs Þnancial distress. Given the estab-lished importance ofestate ownership and location, moving away from Kel-lynch Hall takes on additional signiÞcanceÑwithout the familyÕs ÒPrincipalseat, Kellynch hall, in the county ofSomerset,Ópart ofSir WalterÕs identitywill be missing, and his eldest daughter Elizabeth will be forced to expand herinterests beyond those ofÒone country circleÓ(9). By aligning the class-con-scious and ungracious Sir Walter and Elizabeth Elliot with the securityered by well-deÞned and closed social circles, Austen can express her owndistaste for this structure. Austen also uses Sir WalterÕs Þnancial distress toillustrate how excessive emphasis on preserving the hierarchy ofsocial circlesand the sanctity ofland-ownership directly conßicts with individual, in SirWalterÕs case economic, needs. However, Sir Walter chooses to continue toespouse the old values ofthe landed gentry; thus, the need to retrench and move to Bath is treated as Òa profound secret; not to be breathed beyond theirown circleÓ(15). Austen also introduces a second social set in these opening chaptersÑthe navy. From the perspective ofthe landed gentry, the navy is an inferior setbecause, Sir Walter argues, it is ÒÔthe means ofbringing persons ofobscurebirth into undue distinction, and raising men to honours which their fathersand grandfathers never dreamt ofÕÓ(19). As this statement illustrates, SirWalter objects to the profession because it challenges the Baronetage, whichprivileges land ownership and heredity. In contrast, Anne Elliot views thenavy as a valuable group ofindividuals: ÒÔThe navy, I think, who have done somuch for us, have at least an equal claim with any other set ofmen, for all thecomforts and all the privileges which any home can giveÕÓ(19). Anne chal-lenges her father by claiming that the comforts and status ofKellynch are notreserved for members ofthe landed gentry alone. Austen establishes theexisting social hierarchy in the opening chapters ofPersuasionto explore the implications ofthese social sets and the conßicts between themthroughout the novel as she moves her characters around within, and even-tually across, dierent social groups. Though Austen structures Persuasion around two primary social circles,she remains aware that divisions exist within those circles. For example, theMusgroves are part ofthe landed gentry and an extension ofSir WalterÕsfamily, but their lives and concerns are considerably removed from those ofAnne had not wanted this visit to Uppercross, to learn that aremoval from one set ofpeople to another, though at a distance ofonly three miles, will often include a total change ofconversation,opinion, and idea. She had never been staying there before, with-out being struck by it, or without wishing that other Elliots couldhave her advantage in seeing how unknown, or unconsideredthere, were the aairs which at Kellynch-hall were treated as ofsuch general publicity and pervading interest; yet, with all thisexperience, she believed she must now submit to feel that anotherlesson, in the art ofknowing our own nothingness beyond ourown circle, was become necessary for her. (42)groves, Austen allows her heroine this mobility and the awareness thataccompanies it to prepare both Anne and the reader for AnneÕs subsequentmove to the circle ofthe navy. In addition, by depicting the landed gentry as 67 CHERYL A. WILSON Dance, Physicality, and Social Mobility in Jane AustenÕs Persuasion 68 a social circle consisting ofdiverse subsets, Austen reminds her readers thatsocial groups are not completely homogenous and should not be treated assuch. The dance image applies here as well because though sets ofdancersappear as uniform units within the context ofthe ballroom, within the setsthemselves, each couple and each dancer has distinct rolesÑindividuals arepermitted to move around, but only within the limited space ofthe set and inpatterns dictated by their original physical placement. This is the situation ofthe landed gentry in Persuasion. Nominally, they are a single group, charac-terized by a particular social standing and way oflife, but within this socialgroup, families and individuals exhibit dierent, and sometimes conßicting,characteristics. Austen frames Anne and WentworthÕs courtship with the tensionsbetween the social circles ofthe navy and the landed gentry. In ÒKnowingOneÕs Own Species Better: Social Satire in Persuasion,ÓDavid Grovesacknowledges that Austen was inßuenced by early nineteenth-century soci-ety but suggests that, despite the novelÕs Òsatirical attacksÓon the privilegedclasses, Austen ultimately Òadvocates a cautious acceptance ofsocial hierarchyand established traditionsÓ(15). Although I argue that Austen was somewhatmore critical than accepting ofsociety in Persuasionand wrote with a forward-looking social consciousness, she does reproduce and show the value ofasocial structure in which individuals are assigned to and identiÞed by theirlocation within a particular social group. The situation ofan individual inconßict with her social group, such as that ofAnne Elliot, is preferable to thesituation ofan individual completely excluded from social groups, and thecontrast between Anne and Mrs. Smith illustrates AustenÕs support ofa set-based society. Anne is part ofa social circle and can move around within theparameters deÞned by her set; however, Mrs. Smith lacks such an aliationand is stationary, both physically and socially:culties ofevery sort to contend with, and in addi-tion to these distresses, had been aicted with a severe rheumaticfever, which Þnally settling in her legs, had made her for the pres-ent a cripple. She had come to Bath on that account, and was nowin lodgings near the hot-baths, living in a very humble way, unableeven to aord herselfthe comfort ofa servant, and ofcoursealmost excluded from society. (152Ð53)ÒOfcourseÓMrs. Smith is separate from the rest ofsociety, states AustenÕsnarrator, which proves that lacking a well-deÞned place in society, as Mrs.Smith does, necessarily causes an individual to be cast into complete social oblivion. Just as Mrs. SmithÕs economic situation results in her exclusion fromsociety, her physical situation would relegate her to the sidelines at a ball. Ifthe characters in Persuasion are dancers moving within cotillion-like sets, thenMrs. Smith is, at best, a solitary onlooker. Thus, when placed alongside Mrs.Smith, Anne appears to be in an enviable position. Though Anne is not content in the world ofthe landed gentry, her position provides her with thematerial comforts and opportunities for social interaction (which eventuallylead to her escape) that are not accessible to Mrs. Smith. Indeed, ifAnne wereto strictly observe social boundaries, she herselfwould be inaccessible to theÒÔevery day Mrs. Smith,ÕÓwho Sir Walter Þnds unworthy ÒÔto be the chosenfriend ofMiss Anne Elliot, and to be preferred by her, to her own familyconnections among the nobility ofEngland and Ireland!ÕÓ(158). Sir WalterÕsreaction to his daughterÕs friendship with a poor invalid suggests that Austenalso uses Mrs. Smith to illustrate the plight ofthose consigned to the fringesofsociety and to further the contrast between the social views held by Anne and Sir Walter. However, though Austen uses Mrs. Smith to demon-strate the function ofsocial circles, she continues to stress the need for alter-ations within the existing structure by showing that, for Anne, the rigidboundaries ofthe circle ofthe landed gentry can be as crippling as Mrs.SmithÕs rheumatism. AustenÕs experimentation with social mobility can also be seen in thesituation ofthe Crofts who move from living on a ship to living at KellynchHall, the symbolic center ofthe landed gentryÕs circle. The CroftsÕ situationis only temporary, but by bringing them physically into Sir WalterÕs world,Austen reinforces the idea that social mobility should be possible within aßuid society in which social boundaries are less restrictive and individualdesires can dictate mobility. The CroftsÕ mobility upsets the reliance that boththe cotillion and the Baronetage place on individual deÞnition through phys-ical location, yet AustenÕs favor toward the navy and depiction ofthe navalmenÕs upward social mobility foreshadow and support the disintegration ofaland-based social structure. In addition, Austen uses the situation oftheCrofts to emphasize her disagreement with current social hierarchies,employing her characteristic irony to depict the movement ofindividualsfrom a nominally ÒlowerÓclass into a house temporarily abandoned by a Þnan-cially distressed gentleman. Although this situation may imply that Austenwants to present the navy as potentially threatening to the position ofthelanded gentry, readers remain aware that this is only a temporary situationÑthe characters frequently discuss Sir WalterÕs eventual return to Kellynch as 69 CHERYL A. WILSON Dance, Physicality, and Social Mobility in Jane AustenÕs Persuasion 70 well as the possibility ofanother war, which would see the navyÕs return tosea. The transient nature ofthe CroftsÕ stay at Kellynch combined with theirlack ofdesire to enter the world ofthe landed gentry helps dispel any fearsthat the navy could usurp the position ofthe landed gentry. However, the per-manent act ofsocial mobility in Persuasion, AnneÕs decision to leave Kellynchand enter the circle ofthe navy, suggests that in carving out a social niche forthemselves the naval men may disrupt the lives and set social structures ofthelanded gentry. AustenÕs depiction ofmovement between social circles again illustratesher incorporation and manipulation ofcountry-dance etiquette as it isdepicted in nineteenth-century dance manuals. Anne and Wentworth directlyered by ÒProfessor BonsteinÓin Dancing and Prompting,Etiquette and Deportment ofSociety and Ball room: ÒNo lady and gentleman willleave the set once formed for another set, unless requested by the manager,for it is a gross insult to those you leaveÓ(4). The title ofBonsteinÕs manualsuggests that the rules ofsociety parallel those ofthe ballroom, and AustenÕsdirect attention to the particular social infractions that are most reminiscentofballroom situations, those concerning physical intimacy, individual mobil-ity, and the formation and movement ofsets and circles, allows her to presentPersuasion as a carefully choreographed work that draws some ofits struc-tural and thematic elements from dance manuals. Well-versed in the particu-lar rules ofthe ballroom, Austen uses these rules to make a social statementPersuasion, thereby emphasizing the parallels between the behaviors oftheballroom and ofsociety in general as well as betraying her own familiaritywith these rules ofconduct. The social codes Austen examines and commentsPersuasion directly parallel the rules ofthe ballroom; thus, Austenreveals her ability to employ her particular domestic knowledge for the pur-pose ofexpanding the scope ofher novel beyond the concerns ofthe Elliotfamily and making a statement concerning social hierarchy and mobility. Austen rearms the value ofthe individual within the established socialorder by showing AnneÕs preference for the navy and by giving Anne theopportunity to choose her own social circle based on this preference. Again,Austen advocates a social structure that moves beyond established rules ofboth society and the ballroom. In dancing, as Henry Tilney reminds Cather-orded the luxury ofchoice, but have only thepower to refuse or accept the man who invites them to dance. However,Austen allows Anne to choose her destiny based on her own preferences.Anne is instantly attracted to the naval society she encounters in Lyme. Upon meeting the Harvilles, she is struck by the Òbewitching charm in a degree ofhospitality so uncommon, so unlike the usual style ofgive-and-take invita-tions, and dinners offormality and displayÓ(98). The appeal ofthis set is thenfurther emphasized: ÒÔThese would have been all my friends,Õ was herthought; and she had to struggle against a great tendency to lownessÓ(98).Though the navy is still a social circle, it is a less rigid circle, which has beencreated by its members; the naval men and their families have a newly estab-lished and evolving place in society, unlike the landed gentry who remainconÞned by old codes. For example, Claudia Johnson explains one feature ofthe new circle inscribed by the naval society, saying ofAdmiral and Mrs.Croft, Òfar from presiding over a neighborhood, they live most contentedly atsea, unconcerned with the production ofheirs or the reproduction ofideo-logically correct valuesÓ(147). Johnson continues, ÒMrs. CroftÕs example as awife suggests that life on the high seas, for all its dangers, is to be preferredto the ÔsafetyÕ ofhelpless immobility she experienced when she lived conven-tionally, as most wives such as Mrs. Musgrove doÓ(160). Though Johnsondoes not speciÞcally invoke dance in her discussion offemale immobility,because the country-dance was one ofthe few instances where female mobil-ity was encouraged and admired, it is natural that Austen should haveemployed this motifin structuring Persuasion.Austen rewrites the Barone-tage, which emphasizes the connection between masculinity and place, withher favorable depiction offeminine desire and individual mobility in Persua-. Anne Elliot takes advantage ofthis dance-inspired mobility and removesherselffrom the circle ofthe landed gentry, which allows her to avoid Òthe cul-turally induced idiocy and impotence that domestic conÞnement and femalesocialization seem to breedÓand enter a world in which she is valued as anindividual (Gilbert and Gubar 183). Critical views ofAustenÕs social consciousness vary, and though I arguethat Austen illustrates the importance ofindividual mobility in Persuasionadvocates a society more accepting ofthis freedom, AustenÕs version ofsocialreconstruction is also read as more comprehensive. David M. Monaghanbelieves that Austen recognizes the changing social landscape and depictsÒthe decline ofthe gentryÓin Persuasion. AustenÕs gentry, suggests Mon-aghan, has reached a point at which it has become an empty shell ofextrava-gance, suggested by the situation ofSir Walter, who would never allow hisexternal appearance to betray his Þnancial straits. Likewise, the surface showofmanners among the landed gentry is not necessarily indicative ofan indi-vidualÕs true moral character. Thus, Austen shows the breakdown ofthis 71 CHERYL A. WILSON Dance, Physicality, and Social Mobility in Jane AustenÕs Persuasion 72 social group, and Persuasion is Òa testament to Jane AustenÕs attempts to dealwith the painful truth that that closely-knit community built upon the frame-work ofa universally comprehended system ofmanners which she haspraised throughout her literary career is falling apartÓ(Monaghan 87). Issues ofmobility in Persuasion are foregrounded by the dance motif,and Austen in turn synthesizes these into the larger social implications ofthenovel concerning class mobility and social structure. However, though thenature ofher social commentary is a subject ofcritical discussion, the neces-sity ofsuch analyses has been debated as well. Sarah Morrison questions thetendency ofcritics like Groves and Monaghan to emphasize the social impli-cations ofAustenÕs texts: Òthe regrettable tendency in much Austen criticismto stress the role ofindividual characters as representatives ofa particularclass or social orientation is born ofthe desire to make AustenÕs subject mat-ter more signiÞcant and comprehensiveÓ(338). Although Morrison etively defends AustenÕs domestic interests, the construction ofPersuasionway that presents the landed gentry and the navy as, essentially, opposingsocial units, suggests that, in this novel, Austen was consciously painting aparticular social portrait, though she may not have intended social commen-tary to be the focus ofthe text. Indeed, examining how Austen structured thesocial commentary ofthe novel in a way that mirrors the microcosm oftheballroom combines the views ofAusten as social critic and Austen as domes-tic writer and presents her interests as complementary, not competitive. Thetreatment ofdance in Persuasion also shows how Austen was expanding herartistic techniques. Whereas her earlier novels use self-contained ballroomscenes to represent some ofthe greater tensions in the novel, in PersuasionAusten allows dance to inform the entire novel and to highlight the socialcommentary in the textÑshe uses the rhythms ofthe familiar sphere to con-struct a larger social commentary.When considered in terms ofsocial mobility, the tensions between anindividual and her/his set, and the dance motifthat pervades the text, theÒreconciliation sceneÓbetween Anne and Wentworth takes on additionalÒAre you going as high as Belmont? Are you going near Camden-place? Because ifyou are, I shall have no scruple in asking you totake my placegive Anne your armto her fatherÕs door. She israther done for this morning, and must not go so far withouthelp.Ó. . . There could not be an objection. There could be only amost proper alacrity, a most obliging compliance for public view in private rapture. In halfa minute, Charles was ofUnion-street again, and theproceeding togetherThe italicized phrases highlight the dance imagery. At this moment, in theappropriately named ÒUnion-Street,ÓWentworth is Þnally able to take theplace beside Anne that he has been pursuing throughout the novel, and theconsensual physical contact in this scene foreshadows their impending sexualunion. The publicity ofthe walk is also signiÞcant because it corresponds tothe publicity ofdancing together at a ballÑAnne and Wentworth are word-lessly announcing their engagement. In addition, Charles moves to Òthe bot-tomÓofthe street, just as he would move to the bottom ofthe dance set afterchanging partners, and Anne and Wentworth continue on together. Socialmobility is implicated as well, as the scene literally shows Anne passing fromCharles Musgrove, who is part ofthe landed gentryÕs circle, to Wentworth,who represents the new circle she will enter. The facility with which Annemoves from Charles to Wentworth and AustenÕs decision to set this scene ona crowded street amidst a variety ofpeople not only reinforces the importanceofincreasing social mobility to Persuasion, but also allows Austen to presenta Þnal commentary on the importance ofindividual desires over set-basedsocial structures as Anne and Wentworth Òslowly paced the gradual ascent,heedless ofevery group around themÓ(240).The rhythms ofthe country-dance, familiar to Austen, her characters,and her contemporary readers, are subtly woven through Persuasionnovel, Austen appears to be more concerned with the elements ofthe dancesthemselvesÑi.e., the movement ofphysical bodies, individual mobility, andthe nature ofclosed and structured setsÑthan with the social situation oftheballroom. Anne and WentworthÕs relationship develops quietly amidst thechaos ofothersÕ livesÑit is not a centralized spectacleÑand hence publiciz-ing their courtship in a ballroom scene would be inappropriate. Instead, thedance motifunderlies and illuminates the novelÕs social commentary, grace-fully moving the characters through social situations while testing the limitsoftheir mobility. Removing her trademark ballroom scenes, Austen concen-trates on the nature ofthe dance itselfand lets its character inform her novel,which moves like the kaleidoscopic patterns ofa country-dance. CHERYL A. WILSON Dance, Physicality, and Social Mobility in Jane AustenÕs Persuasion 74 
1.The lack ofdance and ballroom scenes in Persuasion is just one ofthe features that cause Per-erent from AustenÕs other novels. See Mary Bonwick, ÒSisterhoodand Sibling Rivalry in PersuasionÓ; Charles J. Rzepka, ÒMaking it in a Brave New World: Mar-riage, Profession, and Anti-Romantic ekstasis in AustenÕs PersuasionÓ; and Joshua J. Masters,ÒThe Reversal ofGender Roles in Persuasion2.The name Òcountry-danceÓdoes not have rustic associations, but is a translation ofthe FrenchÒContredanse,Óso named because men and women lined up across from one another (Wood 92;ÒCountry DanceÓ255).3.The square form evolved in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries when theFrench adapted English country-dances to suit their dancing spaces, which were generallysmaller and more square than the long English rooms (Wood 93).4.Longways dances were progressive dances for Òas many as willÓin which men and womenstood opposite one another in two lines and couples danced up and down the line. 5.The cotillion and quadrille were very similar; consequently, though the quadrille wasciallyÓintroduced to London society in 1815, the terms ÒquadrilleÓand ÒcotillionÓwere usedinterchangeably for some time: Òas late as 1840 the quadrille was still erroneously referred to as, even though the older form had passed out offashionÓ(ÒCotillonÓ253). Forthe purposes ofthis paper, I will use ÒcotillionÓto refer to the square dances on which the dis-cussion is focused and ÒquadrilleÓto denote the nineteenth-century square dance that descendedfrom the cotillion. ÒCountry-danceÓwill be used in its most general deÞnition to refer to allkinds ofRegency social dance, and Òlongways danceÓwill signify line dances.6.For a critical analysis ofthe relationship between Persuasion and the nineteenth-centurynovel, see Joanne Wilkes, ÒÔSong ofthe Dying SwanÕ?: The Nineteenth-Century Response toPersuasion7.Although many couples could Òstand upÓfor a cotillion, only four danced at a time.8.This passage is quoted in full on pages 72Ð73.9.In Bodies That Matter, Judith Butler undertakes an extensive discussion ofthe relationshipbetween bodies and language. One aspect ofthis relationship, she argues, is a form ofdisplace-ment: ÒInsofar as language might be understood to emerge from the materiality ofbodily life,that is, as the reiteration and extension ofa material set ofrelations, language is a substitute sat-isfaction, a primary act ofdisplacement and condensationÓ(69).10.I use the terms ÒsetÓand ÒcircleÓinterchangeably, as Austen does, to denote a group ofindi-viduals characterized by a particular feature. In Persuasion, the primary basis for distinguishingbetween the sets is social standingÑmost ofthe characters are members ofeither the navy orthe landed gentry.11.For a more extensive discussion see Andrew Miles, Social Mobility in Nineteenth- and EarlyTwentieth-Century England12.For example, Marianne and WilloughbyÕs refusal to dance with anyone else in is a negative comment on the exclusiveness and intensity oftheir quickly formed rela-tionship. Likewise, Elizabeth and DarcyÕs tenuous navigation ofemotional and physical spaceswhile dancing together establishes the pattern that their relationship will follow.I am extremely grateful to Maria Frawley for her support and valuable feedback on this essay. 75 CHERYL A. WILSON Dance, Physicality, and Social Mobility in Jane AustenÕs Persuasion 
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