11 Form and Function of Anatomy amp Physiology Anatomy Study of the structure of body parts and their relationship to one another Physiology Study of the function of body parts how they work to carry out lifesustaining activities ID: 728100
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© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.Slide2
1.1 Form and Function of Anatomy & Physiology
Anatomy
Study of the structure of body parts and their relationship to one anotherPhysiology Study of the function of body parts; how they work to carry out life-sustaining activities
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Topics of Anatomy
Subdivisions of anatomy:
Gross or macroscopic anatomy is the study of large, visible structures
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Topics of Anatomy (cont.)
Subdivisions (cont.)
Microscopic anatomy deals with structures too small to be seen by naked eyeHistologyCytology
Developmental
anatomy
studies anatomical and physiological development throughout life
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Topics of Physiology
To study physiology, one must understand basic physical principles (e.g., electrical currents, pressure, and movement) as well as basic chemical principles
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Complementarity of Structure and Function
Anatomy and physiology are inseparable
Function always reflects structurePrinciple of complementarity of structure and function
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1.2 Structural Organization
Human body is very organized, from the smallest chemical level to whole organism level:
Chemical levelCellular level Tissue levelOrgan level
Organ system level
Organismal level
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Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization.
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Atoms
Molecule
Organelle
Smooth muscle cell
Chemical level
Atoms combine to form
molecules.
Cellular level
Cells are made up of
molecules.
Smooth muscle tissue
Heart
Blood
vessels
Tissue level
Tissues consist of similar types
of cells.
Blood vessel (organ)
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue
Epithelial
tissue
Organ level
Organs are made up of different
types of tissues.
Organ system level
Organ systems consist of different
organs that work together closely.
Organismal level
The human organism is made
up of many organ systems.
Slide 1
Cardiovascular
systemSlide9
1.3 Requirements for Life
Necessary Life Functions
Maintenance of life involves:Maintaining boundariesMovementResponsivenessDigestionMetabolism
Excretion
Reproduction
Growth
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Necessary Life Functions
Maintaining boundaries
Separation between internal and external environments must existMovementMuscular system allows movement
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Necessary Life Functions (cont.)
Responsiveness
Ability to sense and respond to stimuliDigestionBreakdown of ingested foodstuffs, followed by absorption of simple molecules into blood
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Necessary Life Functions (cont.)
Metabolism
All chemical reactions that occur in body cellsSum of all catabolism (breakdown of molecules) and anabolism (synthesis of molecules)ExcretionRemoval of wastes from metabolism and digestion
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Necessary Life Functions (cont.)
Reproduction
At the cellular level, reproduction involves division of cells for growth or repairAt the organismal level, reproduction is the production of offspring Growth
Increase in size of a body part or of organism
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Necessary Life Functions (cont.)
Humans are
multicellular, so to function, individual cells must be kept aliveThere are 11 organ systems that work together to maintain life
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Figure 1.2 Examples of interrelationships among body organ systems.
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Digestive system
Takes in nutrients, breaks them
down, and eliminates unabsorbed
matter (feces)
Respiratory system
Takes in oxygen and
eliminates carbon dioxide
Cardiovascular system
Via the blood, distributes oxygen
and nutrients to all body cells and
delivers wastes and carbon
dioxide to disposal organs
Urinary system
Eliminates
nitrogenous
wastes and
excess ions
Blood
Heart
Interstitial fluid
Nutrients
Nutrients and wastes pass
between blood and cells
via the interstitial fluid
Food
O
2
CO
2
CO
2
O
2
Integumentary system
Protects the body as a whole
from the external environment
Feces
UrineSlide16
Figure 1.3a The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
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Integumentary System
Forms the external body covering, and
protects deeper tissues from injury.
Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses
cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.)
receptors and sweat and oil glands.
Hair
Skin
NailsSlide17
Figure 1.3b The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
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Bones
Joint
Protects and supports body organs,
and provides a framework the muscles
use to cause movement. Blood cells
are formed within bones. Bones store
minerals.
Skeletal SystemSlide18
Figure 1.3c The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
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Skeletal
muscles
Muscular System
Allows manipulation of the
environment, locomotion, and facial
expression. Maintains posture, and
produces heat.Slide19
Figure 1.3d The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
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Brain
Spinal
cord
Nerves
Nervous System
As the fast-acting control system of
the body, it responds to internal and
external changes by activating
appropriate muscles and glands.Slide20
Figure 1.3e The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
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Pineal gland
Thyroid
gland
Thymus
Adrenal
gland
Pancreas
Pituitary
gland
Testis
Ovary
Endocrine System
Glands secrete hormones that
regulate processes such as growth,
reproduction, and nutrient use
(metabolism) by body cells.Slide21
Figure 1.3f The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
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Heart
Blood
vessels
Cardiovascular System
Blood vessels transport blood,
which carries oxygen, carbon
dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc.
The heart pumps blood.Slide22
Figure 1.3g The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
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Red bone
marrow
Thymus
Lymphatic
vessels
Thoracic
duct
Spleen
Lymph
nodes
Lymphatic System/Immunity
Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and
returns it to blood. Disposes of debris in the
lymphatic stream. Houses white blood cells
(lymphocytes) involved in immunity.
The immune response mounts the attack
against foreign substances within the body.Slide23
Figure 1.3h The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
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Nasal
cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Lung
Bronchus
Respiratory System
Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen
and removes carbon dioxide. The gaseous
exchanges occur through the walls of the air
sacs of the lungs.Slide24
Figure 1.3i The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
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Oral cavity
Esophagus
Liver
Stomach
Small
intestine
Large
intestine
Rectum
Anus
Digestive System
Breaks down food into absorbable units
that enter the blood for distribution to
body cells. Indigestible foodstuffs are
eliminated as feces.Slide25
Figure 1.3j The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
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Kidney
Ureter
Urinary
bladder
Urethra
Urinary System
Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body.
Regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base
balance of the blood.Slide26
Figure 1.3k The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
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Prostate
Penis
Testis
Ductus
deferens
Scrotum
Male Reproductive System
Overall function is production of offspring. Testes produce
sperm and male sex hormone, and male ducts and glands
aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract.
Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remaining
female structures serve as sites for fertilization and development
of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to
nourish the newborn.Slide27
Figure 1.3l The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
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Mammary
glands (in
breasts)
Ovary
Uterus
Vagina
Uterine
tube
Female Reproductive System
Overall function is production of offspring. Testes produce
sperm and male sex hormone, and male ducts and glands
aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract.
Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remaining
female structures serve as sites for fertilization and development
of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to
nourish the newborn.Slide28
Survival Needs
Humans need several factors for survival that must be in the appropriate amounts; too much or too little can be harmful:
NutrientsOxygenWaterNormal body temperature
Appropriate atmospheric pressure
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Survival Needs (cont.)
Nutrients
Chemicals for energy and cell buildingOxygenEssential for release of energy from foods
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Survival Needs (cont.)
Water
Most abundant chemical in body; provides the watery environment needed for chemical reactionsNormal body temperatureAppropriate atmospheric pressure
Specific pressure of air is needed for adequate breathing and gas exchange in lungs
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1.4 Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions despite continuous changes in environment
A dynamic state of equilibrium, always readjusting as neededMaintained by contributions of all organ systems
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Homeostatic Controls
Body must constantly be monitored and regulated to maintain homeostasis
Homeostatic control of variables involves three components: receptor, control center, and effector© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.Slide33
Homeostatic Controls (cont.)
Receptor
(sensor)Monitors environmentResponds to stimuli (things that cause changes in controlled variables)Control
center
Determines set point at which variable is maintained
Receives input from receptor
Determines appropriate response
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Homeostatic Controls (cont.)
Effector
Receives output from control centerProvides the means to respond Response either reduces stimulus (negative feedback
) or enhances stimulus (
positive
feedback
)
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Homeostatic Controls (cont.)
Negative
feedbackMost-used feedback mechanism in bodyResponse reduces or shuts off original stimulusVariable changes in opposite direction of initial change
Examples
Regulation of body temperature (a nervous system mechanism)
Regulation of blood glucose by insulin (an endocrine system mechanism)
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Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain stable internal conditions.
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1
Input:
Information
sent along afferent
pathway to control
center.
Receptor
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
Output:
Information
sent along efferent
pathway to effector.
Receptor
detects change.
Effector
Response
Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
BALANCE
of effector feeds
back to reduce
the effect of
stimulus and
returns variable
to homeostatic
level.
Control
Center
IMBALANCE
IMBALANCE
1
2
3
4
5
Slide 1Slide37
Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain stable internal conditions.
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
1
Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
BALANCE
IMBALANCE
IMBALANCE
1
Slide 2Slide38
Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain stable internal conditions.
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
1
Receptor
Receptor
detects change.
Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
BALANCE
IMBALANCE
IMBALANCE
1
2
Slide 3Slide39
Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain stable internal conditions.
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
1
Input:
Information
sent along afferent
pathway to control
center.
Receptor
Afferent
pathway
Receptor
detects change.
Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
BALANCE
Control
Center
IMBALANCE
IMBALANCE
1
2
3
Slide 4Slide40
Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain stable internal conditions.
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
1
Input:
Information
sent along afferent
pathway to control
center.
Receptor
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
Output:
Information
sent along efferent
pathway to effector.
Receptor
detects change.
Effector
Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
BALANCE
Control
Center
IMBALANCE
IMBALANCE
1
2
3
4
Slide 5Slide41
Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain stable internal conditions.
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
1
Input:
Information
sent along afferent
pathway to control
center.
Receptor
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
Output:
Information
sent along efferent
pathway to effector.
Receptor
detects change.
Effector
Response
Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
BALANCE
of effector feeds
back to reduce
the effect of
stimulus and
returns variable
to homeostatic
level.
Control
Center
IMBALANCE
IMBALANCE
1
2
3
4
5
Slide 6Slide42
Figure 1.5 Body temperature is regulated by a negative feedback mechanism.
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Control Center
(thermoregulatory
center in brain)
Afferent
pathway
Receptors
Temperature-sensitive
cells in skin and brain
Efferent
pathway
Effectors
Sweat glands
Sweat glands activated
Body temperature
rises
Stimulus: Heat
Response
Evaporation of sweat
Body temperature falls;
stimulus ends
BALANCE
Stimulus: Cold
Response
Body temperature rises;
stimulus ends
Body temperature
falls
Effectors
Skeletal muscles
Receptors
Temperature-sensitive
cells in skin and brain
Shivering begins
Efferent
pathway
Afferent
pathway
Control Center
(thermoregulatory
center in brain)
IMBALANCE
IMBALANCESlide43
Homeostatic Controls (cont.)
Positive
feedbackResponse enhances or exaggerates the original stimulusMay exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect as feedback causes variable to continue in same direction as initial change
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Homeostatic Imbalance
Disturbance of homeostasis
Increases risk of disease Contributes to changes associated with agingControl systems become less efficient If negative feedback mechanisms become overwhelmed, destructive positive feedback mechanisms may take over
Heart failure
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