InconspicuousConsumption:Non-DisplayGoodsandIdentityFormationMonicaL.S - PDF document

InconspicuousConsumption:Non-DisplayGoodsandIdentityFormationMonicaL.SmithPublishedonline:4October2007SpringerScience+BusinessMedia,LLC2007AbstractInthestudyofancientmaterialculture,archaeologistshaveprimarilyfocusedontheuseofobjectsfordisplayandcommunication.Thissocialfunctionofmaterialculturecouldonlyhavedevelopedonthebasisofindividualcognitivecapacityfortheuseofgoodsasmaterializationsofsymbolicbehavior.Toexplorethedeeplyheldrelationshipofidentitytomaterialculture,thispaperfocuseson M.L.Smith(DepartmentofAnthropology,341HainesHall,UCLA,LosAngeles,CA90095-1553,USAe-mail:smith@anthro.ucla.edu centerandlocatesubjectsinaprocessconditionedbythewayinwhichtheindividualwilleventuallybeseenbyothers(Nast:99).Foranadult,thisconditioningtakesplacebeforetheindividualleavesthemirroredspacetoencounterothers,andhowevermitigated,restsontheindividualsdesiredidentityaswellasher/hisrealisticassessmentsofhowthatrealitywillbeperceivedoutsidetheprivatesphere.Privateenvironments,whetherornottheyincludeanactualmirror,enabletheperformanceofactsinatransitionalspaceinwhichwhatisfantasyandwhatisrealityisnotyetdecided:85).Assoonastheactisviewablebyanotherperson,thebecomesconcretizedinawaythatproducesasocially-recognizedrole.Therealizationofasocialrolehasthreecomponents:thatwhichisintendedandprojectedbytheindividual;thatwhichisintendedandacteduponbyothers;andthatwhichisdevelopedbyothersindependentoftheindividualsvolition.Figureshowstherelationshipbetweenprivateidentityformationandpublicperception,inwhichprivately-heldreflexiveidentityiscounter-balancedbyanidentityoverwhichtheindividualhasnocontrol.Intheoverlappingcentralareathereistheidentitythatisbothself-projectedandperceivedbyothers.Itisimportanttokeepinmindthatsomecomponentsofanindividualsreflexiveidentityarethwartedintheirpublicexpression.Individualperceptionsofsexualdesirability,glamour,strength,intel-lectualprowess,andotherqualitiesmayevenwiththerightmaterialcultureneverbesuccessfullyconveyedtoothers.Conversely,somecomponentsofidentityaredesignatedbyothersandcannotbesuccessfullynegatedbytheindividual(e.g.,Thenotionofperformance,consistingofactionsthatvalidateandactualizeusesofmaterialculture,iswhatlinksthethreerealmsofFig..Whilegoodsaregenerallyonlyacquiredonce,theiruseisanongoingfunctioninwhichchoiceisexercisedregularlyaboutwhichitemtouse,when,forhowlong,andtowhateffect.SchifferandMiller(1999:103)proposesthathumanbehavioringeneralisequivalenttoperformanceinrelationtootherinteractorsinthematerialmedium.Evaluatedthisway,performancefortheselfisnodifferentfromperformancetoothersexceptthatintheprivaterealmtheindividualistheonlyonewhodetermineswhether,how,andwhentouseparticularitems.Theindividualisalsotheonlyonetoadjudgewhethertheperformanceissuccessful;althoughexternalmotivators(suchastheanticipatedresponsesofothers)areoftenproposedascritical perceived by self perceived by othersperceived by bothself and others Fig.1Identitiesastheyareactualizedinprivateandpublic InconspicuousConsumption415 canbevariablyconstitutedandhumanscanactivelyaddormodifytheiridentitieswithoutnegatingpastidentities.Theobjectsinvolvedinthosequotidianactionsofidentityformationincludeitemsthathaveahighrelativeabundanceand/orahighfrequencyofuse.Thisfrequencyofuseenablesindividualstohavemoreconsistentoutcomes,aprocessofpracticemakesperfectthatenhancesbothprivateandpublicperformances(seeDerossisetal.;Ericssonetal.).Asaresult,ordinarygoodsmayenableamoreconsciousandpurposefuliterationofidentitythanseldom-usedobjectswhosemeaningisrelativelystatic(Kleineetal.1993;Smith).Interactionswithmundanegoodscantakeavarietyofforms:thehandlingoffamiliarornostalgicobjectswhoseworthisenhancedfortheindividualthroughidiosyncraticmemory(e.g.Garvey;Young);theuseofephemeralitemssuchasfoodsorcosmetics;oreventhepurposefuldiscardofobjectsinordertoeliminatesomeunwantedcomponentofidentity.Itemsthatarewidely-available,inexpensive,andmundaneseemtobeaparticularfocusofthislattercategoryofuse.InherstudyofasmallvillageintheTamilNadustateofIndia,DianeMines()notedthatpeoplewhoweresufferingfromphysicalormentalmaladieswouldacttotransfermalevolentspiritstoafooditemsuchasaneggoraballofrice,whichwasthendiscardedoutsidethevillageboundarywiththeintentoffreeingthepersonfromtheevilthatcausedtheailment.Similarly,Masquelier()hasobservedhowsmall,ephemeralitemssuchasclovesofgarlicandsugarcubesserveasvectorsofwitchcraftinNiger.MaterialGoodsandPrivateIdentity:ThreeClassesofObjectsByfocusingoncommonplacegoods,wecanidentifytherepeatedperformancesofidentitythatweremanifestedasanecessarycognitiveprecursortosocialinteractionsonboththeindividualandtheevolutionaryscale.Thiswillbeevaluatedthroughthreecategoriesofprivately-utilizedordinarygoods:pharmaceuticals,underwear,andhygieneproducts.Thisuseofmodernmaterialculturetobuildmodelsforthehumanpastcanbejustifiedontwogrounds.First,observationsofmodernbehaviorhaveoftenbeentheonlywaytobegininvestigatingtheevolutionarytrajectoryofcomplexsocialinteractions.Studiesofsmall-groupexperimentshaveprovidedthebasisformodelingancientstatesystems(Johnson),whileobservationsofcontemporaryusesofmaterialcultureasmarkersofdistinctionprovidedtheimpetusforstudyingethnicityinthepast(Hodder;Wobst).Studiesofmodernfarmingcommunitiesenabledresearcherstounderstandthesocialrelationsoflaborandtheeconomythatunderlayancientcultivationsystemsaswell(NettingModerngenderstudiesfurnishedthetheoreticalfoundationforcriticalrevisionsoftheroleofwomeninhumansocialevolution(Dahlberg;Hawkesetal.Thesestudiesalsopromptedthesearchforarchaeologicalevidenceofotherbehaviorspreviouslythoughttobeinvisiblesuchasmotheringandchildbirth2005)andchildhooditself(Baxter).Ethnoarchaeologicalstudiesofceramic,metal,andtextileproductionenabledresearcherstoascertainhowpremodernproductionwasdevelopedandtransformed(Kramer;Longacre).Andattheotherendoftheconsumptionprocess,studiesofdisposaland InconspicuousConsumption417 discardhaveprovidedthebasisforunderstandinghumandisengagementwithmaterialculture(BeckandHill;RathjeandMurphy;SchifferAsecondreasontointegratemodernconsumerstudiesandthearchaeologicalpastisthatcontemporary,Westernpeopleoftenhavebeenomittedfrommodel-building.Mostethnographicresearchusedforarchaeologicalmodelsconcernssmall-scalesocieties(preferablyinexoticandhard-to-reachlocations)orproductionprocessesthatinvolvelowlevelsoftechnology.Theexpectationthatthesegroupsaresomehowbetterforarchaeologicalmodel-buildingiscoupledwithavaguesuspicionthattheIndustrialRevolutionandglobalizationhasproducedawhollynewformofconsumptionbehavior.However,thepatternsofconsumptionevidenttodayarethefluorescenceofcognitivecapacitiespresentinourspeciesforatleastthepast50thousandyears.Individualsinthemostdevelopednationsshouldnotbeexemptfromprovidinginformationabouthumanbehavioralprocesses;moreover,therelativelystraightforwardabilitytocapturedatashouldpromptustoactivelyseekoutmodernactivitiestocreatemodelsofearlyhumanbehavioraltrajectories(e.g.,Schifferetal.;WalkerandSchiffer).Aslongasthereisevidenceinthearchaeologicalrecordforprivatelyconductedengagementswithmaterialculture,wecanutilizethecontinuityofhumancognitiontoprovidemodelsofindividualactionsinarchaeologicalcontexts.Allthreeofthecategoriesofgoodsdiscussedbelowaddressbodilyrealitiesofhealthandfitnessthatwouldhavebeenperceivedbyancientindividualsaswell,constitutingarobustbasisforunderstandinghowindividualsdirecttheirautonomouscognitiveprocessestothematerializationofprivateidentity-linkedbehaviors.PharmaceuticalsIntheUSAalone,billionsofdollarsarespentinthedevelopment,research,promotion,advertisingandsaleofprescriptionmedicinesdesignedforawidevarietyofconditionsrangingfromcosmeticalterationstolife-threateningillnesses.Billionsmorearespentbyconsumersonavarietyofnon-prescriptionconcoctionssuchasnutraceuticals,cosmaceuticals,stimulants,vitamins,andperformance-enhancingsupplements.Yetallofthesesubstancesareintendedtobeinhaledorimbibedinprivate.Thisauraofprivacyismaintainedthroughouttheacquisitionprocess,fromthemomentofinitialcontactwiththepharmacistinwhichcustomersarerequestedtomaintaindistance,throughthepurchaseandbaggingoftheitems.Unlikecafés,pharmaciesneverhavetablesandchairsavailableforcustomerswhowanttopartakeoftheirprescriptionsimmediatelyuponreceipt.Manyprescriptionandmedicationsaredesignedtoaddressavarietyofphysiologicalconditionsthatareperceivedasabnormal,includingspecificailments(e.g.,bacterialinfections),episodicdiscomforts(e.g.,heartburn)andlong-termhealthconditions(highbloodpressure,asthma,anti-rejectionmedicationfororgantransplantees).Non-prescriptiondrugsalsoincludeformula-tionsconsumedtoenhanceageneralsenseofwell-beingorinabeliefthattheycanpreventillness.Dietarysupplements,consistingofover-the-countercompila-tionsthatincludevitamins,minerals,andbotanicalproducts,areestimatedtoberepresentedbyover29,000differentproductsintheUSAalone(Palmeretal.:101).Anothergrowingindustryconsistsofnutraceuticalsmedicalfoods 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projectionandidentityinadditiontoobjectivemeasuresofphysicaleffect.Thus,valueiscreatedthroughavarietyofsubjectivemeasuresthatarelinkedtoselectivelyfilteredinputs(e.g.,doItrustthesourceoftheinformationthatthiswillmakemefeelbetter,andisthatsourcemoreorlesspowerfulthanhowIactuallyperceivemyselftofeelbasedonotherinternalandsubjectivecriteria?).Pharma-ceuticalsandotheringestedsubstancesareperhapstheultimatearenaforassessinghowvalueiscreatedthroughpsychologicalassessmentsthatcanoutweighbothphysicalevidenceandpublic,externalperceptions.Afurtherindicatoroftheextenttowhichinternalidentitieschannelprivatebehaviorisseenintheeffortstoaddressproblemsofpatientnon-compliance.Recentstudiesillustratethatcomplianceisnotmerelyamatterofeducation;forexample,researchamongwealthy,educatedwomenshowedthattheydidnottakeinrecommendeddosesofdailycalcium,althoughtheirage,incomeandeducationallevelplacedtheminwhatwouldordinarilybeperceivedasagroupwithhighincentivesforhealthmaintenanceandimprovement(KirnAcknowledgingthatknowledgealonedoesnotchangebehavior,researchersarenowinvestigatingthewayinwhichpatientnon-complianceisnotamatterofforgetfulnessbutcompriseswhatthepatientviewsasarationalchoice(Miller:44;seealsoMannetal.UnderwearTheexistenceofahighdegreeofvariabilityincontemporaryunderwearindicatesthatthechoicesexercisedbyconsumersaremadeonthebasisoffactorsotherthandisplaytoothers,sinceunderwearisalmostalwaysexpresslydesignedtobewornunderotherclothes.Althoughtwenty-firstcenturyfashiontrendshaveenabledunderweartobevisiblecomponentsofpublicdress,mostunderwearisstillregardedasmeanttobeconcealed.IncontemporaryAmericanculture,theaccidentaldisplayofevenclean,unwornunderwear(inapurseordraweroraccidentallyadheringtotheoutsideofclothingorlaundrybaskets)isconsideredembarrassingandawkward(Pattee:12).Inmoreconservativecultures,underwearissimilarlykeptfromview;inSriLanka,forexample,underweariswashedanddriedoutofpublicvieweventhoughotherlaundryishungouttodryintheopenandeventhoughmanyvillagewomenworkingarmentfactoriesproducingunderwearforexport(LynchForindividuals,undergarmentsaretheclothingthatidentifiesthepersonbeforetheyputontheclothesthatconstitutetheirsocialskin(cf.Turner).Inconservativeaswellasmoreliberalsocieties,theonlytimesinwhichtheunderwearmaybelegitimatelyexposedtoviewisundercircumstancesinwhichtheviewingpartieswouldalreadyknowthewearerinsomeothercapacity:asloveobject,askin,astheobjectofprofessionalresponsibility(e.g.,doctor,ambulancedriver,morgueattendant),orasapartofalready-designatedsocialgroups(gymmember).Ineverycase,therelationshipbetweenthewearerandtheviewerisconditionedbyfactorsthatprecedeandpresumablyoutweightheviewingofunderwear.Rarelydoindividualsmeetundercircumstancesinwhichunderwearisthefirst,defining,oronlysymbolicidentifier.Nonetheless,underwearcommandsalargeproportionoftheclothingmarket:in2000,over8billiondollarsworthoflingeriewassold),afigurethatcanbecomparedto4billiondollarsofhosiery(Anonymous 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expensiveundergarmentsaresociallysanctionedforproxydisplay.Themostimmediateproxyconsistsofelaborateanddistinctivebags;anyonecarryingthesopaquebaginapublicplaceismakingastatementabouttheirpastpurchase(andpresumedfuturewearings)oftheundergarmentssoldthere.Asecondproxy,equallysuitedforpublicview,isthecatalogsthatproclaimthepossessortobeofaprivilegedset.Athirdtypeofproxyisadvertisingfoundinmagazinescateringtoaparticularsocio-economicclass,whichproclaimthereadertobethetypeofpersonwhoshouldbewearingthoseundergarments.Finally,storefrontsthemselves,suchasthelavishlydecoratedstorefrontsofVictoriasSecret,projectanimageintothepublicspaceofmallsinawaythatcallsattentiontothosewhoenterthepremisesorwhojuststoptolingerandwindow-shop(seeGottdienerAsidefrombeingfashionstatementsbyproxyinthepublicarena,undergarmentscanalsocarryaritualandreligioussignificance.Sikhmenandwomenwearaclose-fittingundergarment(kachhehra)thatisdistinctfromtheloosewraparoundgarment)wornbynon-SikhSouthAsians(ColeandSambhi).ThefunctionoftheSikhundergarmentisdescribedasboostingthemoralcharacterofthewearer(Dhillon:65),allowingthewearertodemonstratereserveincommitmenttotheprocreativeworldasagainstrenouncingitaltogether(Uberoi:132).ForfollowersoftheChurchofJesusChristofLatter-DaySaints,Mormonunderwearisagarmentwithaseriesofsymbols.TheundergarmentswereoriginallydistributedbythereligionsfounderJosephSmithasakindofspiritualbarrierthatprovidedliteralprotectionagainstillnessandinjury,afactthatleadsSimmerman()tospeculateonthesimilaritiestothebeliefinprotectivegarmentsintheDancephenomenonofSmithsNativeAmericancontemporaries.WhileMormonundergarmentshaveapparentlyundergonechangesinformandstyle,theyremainahighlysecretivepractice.Thepresenceofsuchgarmentsunderpubliclyvisibleclothingissurmisedyetstillunseenbyothermembersofthefaith;aswithothertypesofunderclothing,onlythewearerknowsforcertainwhetherthegarmentinquestionisbeingwornatanygivenmoment.HygieneProductsMostpersonalhygieneproductsareexpresslydesignedtobeusedinprivate:ointments,deodorants,feminineproducts,dentalfloss.Yet,asinthecaseofpharmaceuticalsandunderwear,thereisasignificantmarketinbrandedproductstowhichusershaveahighdegreeofloyalty(Bainbridge).Choicesamongintimate-useitems,whichtendtobedisposable,appeartobemadeinthesamemanneraschoicesintherealmofingestedgoods(suchaspharmaceuticals)andofreusablegoods(suchasunderwear).Amongintimateconsumergoods,femininehygieneproductsconstitutethecategorythathasreceivedthemostanalyticscrutiny.Feministscholarsinparticularhaveseizeduponthetopicofwomenshygienetoshowhowbasicbodilyfunctionsareaddressedwithinlargersocialcontexts.Inhistoricalterms,thesesocialcontextsincludethesubjugationofwomenthroughcontrolofreproductionpotential;becausemonthlycyclesceaseduringpregnancy,menstruationcouldbeviewedasanaberrationfromawomansnaturalanddesiredstate(Park;Rosengarten).Sincesomeamountofcyclingcanbeexpectedfromevenhighlyreproductive 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Archaeologicalevidenceindicatesthatthedevelopmentofcodifiedarchitecturalformsofprivacyinthepastseveralthousandyearswerethemselvesonlythemostrecentfluorescenceofthematerializationofprivateidentity.Thethreecategoriesofgoodsdiscussedabovepharmaceuticals,underwear,andhygieneproductstheiranaloguesindeepprehistory,eachofwhichcanbetracedinthearchaeologicalrecord.Ofthese,individualresponsestohealthprobablyconstitutethemostabundantcategoryofarchaeologicalevidencetoevaluatereflexiveidentityinthepast.Death,illness,andinjurywereallphenomenathatwerepersonallyandrepeatedlyexperiencedbyancientpeople.Individualswouldhaveattemptedtomitigateailmentsthroughbehaviorsthattheyperceivedwererestorativeorhealth-enhancing,evenwhenthosepracticeswereobjectivelydeleterious(forexample,blood-letting,trepanation,ortheconsumptionofhallucinogens).Liketodaydoctors,skilledpractitionersofancientmedicinesurelyrecommendedthequantityandtimingoftheingestionofherbsandplantsaswellasrecommendingfoodsandactivitiestoavoid.Butlikemodernpeople,ourancientancestorsmaywellhaveaffirmedtheirautonomyornegatedadiagnosisofillnessthroughtheidiosyncraticmodificationofprescriptionregimes.Previousarchaeologicalanalysesofancienthealthandillnesshavelargelybeenfocusedonthepopulationlevel,enablingustoaddressdemographyandtheeffectoflong-termtransitions,suchasagriculture,onhumanwell-being(e.g.Bocquet-Appel;Buikstraetal.;Eshedetal.;FrankenbergandKonigsbergWhenviewedfromtheperspectiveoftheindividual,however,wecanexaminetheinteractionsbetweentherangeofparameterssociallyrecognizedforthetreatmentofillnessandtheindividualactionsactuallytaken.Medicalpracticesweresomeofthefirstmatterstobewrittendownwhensocietiesbecameliterate,andthesetextsrevealthatconflictingadvicewasjustasprevalentinthepastasitistoday.InMesopotamia,China,andEgypt,theearliestmedicaldocumentsshowthattherewerebothpracticalandmagico-religioussolutionstoillness,meaningthatpatientsfirsthadtodeterminetherelativeefficacyofdifferentsystemsofmedicineandthenproceedthroughaprescribedcourseoftreatment(Arnott:44).Detailedculinaryandlandscapeknowledgeresultedinanimpressivearrayofcurativerecipes;forexample,earlyChinesedocumentssuchasthePrescriptionsforFifty-TwoAilmentscomposedbeforetheendofthethirdcenturyBC,containedinstructionsformorethan200medicinalsubstances(Wu:4),whileBabyloniantextsofthesecondmillenniumBClistedover250medicinalplantsand120mineralsusedincombinationwithalcoholicbeverages,bouillon,fats,honey,milkinvariousforms,oils,wax,andpartsandproductsofanimals(SpiegelandSpringerContraceptionandabortifacientswereaparticularlyabidingconcernthatpromptedtheuseofavarietyofnaturalsubstancesandelaborateconcoctions(e.g.Ciaraldi;NetlandandMartinezMedicalpracticesrecordedinancienttextsdidnotsimplydevolvefromthepensofasmallnumberoflearnedpractitioners.Instead,asMiller(:15)suggestsforNewKingdomEgypt,thewrittenrecordmayinsteadrepresentthecompilationofhomeremediesandfolkknowledgepracticedatthehouseholdlevel.Thisprovidesanexcellentexampleofculturalpracticesdefinedfromthebottomupinwhichindividualdecisionsaboutmaterialcultureformedthebasisforthesocialparameterseventuallytransmittedasscholarlyknowledge.Archaeologicalevidencefromnon- 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literateperiodsalsoshowsthatthatindividualsingestedavarietyofsubstancesinthepursuitofhealthandforthemitigationofillness.Mummiesandotherpreservedbodiesoftenhaveevidenceforwormsandotherorganisms,indicatingthatinternalandexternalparasiteswerelikelytohavebeenquitecommoninantiquity(Magner).Peopleappeartohaveutilizedplantswithknownmedicinalqualitiestocombattheseparasites,asseeninthediscoveryoftwopiecesofthebracketfungusPiptoporusbetulinusamongthepersonaleffectsofthe5,300-yearoldEuropeanIceMan(Capasso1998),andhighratesofchenopodconsumptionamongpre-agriculturalpopulationsoftheAmericanGreatBasin(Kliks).Parasiteloadsandotherindicatorsofillhealthwouldhaveincreaseddramaticallyatthebeginningofsedentismstartingaround10,000yearsago,whenpeoplelivedinthesamelocationsforlongperiodsoftime,subsistedlargelyongrainsthathadaminimalvitamindiversity,andstoredfoodsinconditionsthatpromotedthedevelopmentofmoldsandtoxins(Magner:2).Whethersedentaryormobile,individualswouldhavebeenacutelyawareofinternaldiscomfortandtheirknowledgeoftheenvironmentwouldhavebeendirectedtowardsalleviatingdistressjustasmuchassatisfyinghunger.Thematerializationoftheselfcanalsobeseenthroughthearchaeologicalevidenceofgarmentsandotheritemsmeanttobeutilizedbyonepersonatatime.Perceptibleeveninthemostmodestgoodsarechoicesexercisedbytheconsumerinmattersofcolor,shape,design,form,material,andtypeofdecoration.Muchofancientpeoplesportableobjectrepertoirewasmadefromperishablematerialssuchaswood,cloth,feathers,bamboo,sinew,leather,andfur.Thislevelofperishabilitymeantthatintheindividualslifetimemostpersonalobjectswouldhavebeencontinuallyreplaced,allowingforshiftsindecorativestyleandpreferencetobeexercisedonaregularbasis.Personalitemssuchasornaments,cosmetics,clothing,andfootwearwereespeciallyvariableasnewfashionscamein,andasindividualsdecidedhowandwhentodisplaceoldpossessionsfornewones.Asisthecasetoday,therewereaspectsofadornmentthatwereentirelyself-actualizedandephemeralintheircreation,suchashairstylesandthedrapingofclothing.Representationsoftheseidiosyncraticdisplaysofstylearepreservedinsculptures,figurines,androckengravingsthatenableustoenvisionsomeofthediversityofindividualchoiceinmaterialuse.ThedevelopmentofclothinginparticularprovidesanopportunitytoexaminehowprivateidentitieswereexpandedthroughthediversityofmaterialcultureusestartingintheUpperPaleolithic.Becauseactualclothingisrarelypreservedandtask-specificitemssuchasneedlesarerare,othertypesofdataarerequired.Onecreativeapproachtothisquestionhasbeenprovidedthroughthestudyofparasites.Thehumanbodylouse(P.humanuscorporis)subsistsonhumanbeingsbutlivesinclothing,anadaptationthatsuggestedtoKittleretal.)ameansbywhichthedevelopmentofclothingcouldbedated.TheysequencedthemitochondrialDNAofthelouse,andfoundthatthisspeciesfirstappearedat72,000±42,000yearsago,atimethatcorrespondstotheexpansionofHomosapiensoutofAfricaandintoavarietyofglobalregions.Moreover,thesequencingrevealedthatthebodylouseoriginatedinAfrica,meaningthatclothingwasdevelopedasapartofH.sapienspre-migratorytoolkitandwasnotmerelyaresponsetocolderclimateselsewhereinEurasia.Thedevelopmentofclothingenabledindividualstoengageinregular 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decisionsabouttheformtobecreated,anddailydecisionsaboutwhetherandhowtoweartheresultinggarment.Thedevelopmentofclothingalsoprovidedeasilymanipulatedparametersofprivacy:whatisunderclothingremainhidden,sothatitemssuchasamuletsandcharmswouldbeknownonlytotheindividualwhoselectivelydisplayedthemtoothers.Insomecases,exceptionalconditionsofpreservationhaveenabledustofindmoredirectevidenceforreflexiveidentitymanifestedinmaterialculturepractices.DesertsinEgyptandthefrozentundraofSiberiahavepreservedindividualswithelaboratetattoos,someofwhichwouldhavelikelybeenhiddenfrompublicview.Theseincludepermanentmarksinareassuchasthespineandlowerbackwheretheymayrepresentsympatheticmagictocounterbackandkidneypain(Mayor).WaterloggedconditionsinthepeatbogsofEnglandandIrelandhavepreservedbodieswithelaboratehairstylesforbothmenandwomen.Interestingly,someofthewomensheadswereshavenononeside(vanderSanden:164),indicatinghowprivatelyheldidealsofdressandpresentationweresociallynegatedatthetimeofdeath.Anotherexceptionallywell-preservedexampleofahumanartifactrepertoireisfoundwiththeIceManrecoveredintheSwiss-AustrianAlps(Spindler).Inadditiontoaquiver,belt-pouch,andothercontainersservingasakitofequipment,thisindividualhadasmallmarblebeadonatasselthatprobablywouldhavebeenworninthefrontandunderclothing.Thearchaeologicalrecoveryofpersonalitemswithmarkingsindicatethepresenceofreflexiveidentityaswell.MarkKenoyer(1998:75)notesthatattheBronze-AgesiteofHarappa,tinybonepointsthatmayhavebeenusedashairpinsortoothpickshaveaminiatureinscriptionatoneend.Thesignistoosmalltobevisibleatadistanceandclearlywasnotapubliccommunication;possiblythesewerepersonalidentificationmarksorprotectivesymbols.RosemaryJoyce(:113)notesasimilarphenomenonamongornamentsoftheMayaperiod(firstmillenniumincludingabeadpendantandanearspooleachinscribedwithtextthatwouldhavebeenwornfacinginwardsandthusnotvisibletotheexternalviewer.Aspectsofstylewithinvisibleobjectcategorieswerealsovaried,indicatingthepresenceofchoicesavailabletotheindividualwithincategoriesofsimilargoods.AttheancientcityofSisupalgarhinIndiadatingtotheearlycenturies.,manyornamentsaremadeofterracottawhichisarguablyoneofthecheapestformsofmaterialculture.Terracottarings,bracelets,earstudsandpendantsweremadeinmolds,indicativeofrapidandstandardizedproduction.Therecoveryoftheseobjectsinsecureexcavatedcontextsshowthattherewasatremendousdiversityofshapesandformsinuseatthesametime,includingfloralandgeometricmotifsaswellashumanheadsandanimalfigures(MohantyandSmith;SmithandMohanty).Thefactthatallwereproducedusingthesamesimpletechnologyindicatesthattherewasconsiderablechoiceofferedtotheconsumersofthesegoods,inwhichanyindividualsselectionforusewasprobablybasedonhighlyidiosyncraticcriteria.Finally,personalhygieneitems,cosmetics,andotherphysiologicalenhancersappeartohavebeencomponentsofthematerialrepertoirestartingataveryearlydate.Atabasicbiologicallevel,theexistenceofclothing-relatedliceandthepresumedlevelofdiscomfortduetoexternalparasiteswouldhavepromotedgroomingbehavior.Bodilyfunctionsrelatedtomenstruation,childbirth,anddentaldistressalsowouldhavepromptedtheknowledgeanduseofsomepersonal 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althoughthesemodesofpublicsignallingdonotalwaysresultinthetargetgroupacceptanceoftheproduct(e.g.,HebdigecitedinMiller:169,SchifferThevalueofprivatelyusedgoodsmightbebasedpartiallyinfactorsthatareobjectivelymeasurableanddonotrelyonpublicperformance,suchasdrugefficacyorsomeotherphysicalpropertiessuchasabsorbencyortranspiration.Butinanycontext,whetherdisplayedorreflexive,alsohasanideologicalcomponentinwhichjudgementsaremadeonnon-objectivegroundsorevenincontrasttoobjectivegrounds.KacelnikandMarsh()notethatbehaviorcannotbepredictedsolelyonaneconomicbasisunderaminimaxmodels(minimumoutputformaximumreturns);instead,perceivedcostcanactuallyincreasethedesirabilityofparticulargoodsorconditions.Inmanycases,valueisfirstassessedbyindividualsreflexivelywhetherornottheyeventuallyintendtosharethisinformationwithothers.Second,howdopeoplelearnbehaviors,andhowcanpatterningbeelucidatedwhenactionsareinvisible?ReferencetoFig.indicatesthatprivateactionsareinternalizationsofexternalperceptionstoaconsiderableextent.Objectsareacquiredinthepublicrealmforselectiveuseintheprivaterealm,butthegeneralformandpotentialofuseispublicknowledgeeveniftheresultantbehaviorisprivatelyselectedfortimingandfrequency.Onthecognitivelevelthisistrueaswellsincegroupparticipationandmemoryservetoenabletheindividualtorecreatetheperformanceinprivate:Directaccesstootherpeoplesexperienceisunnecessary;providedthattheirexperienceisassumedtoberelevant,observationoftheircurrentpracticesissufficient(Loasby:19).Asshowninthecaseofunderwear,theseexternalperceptionshaveaneffectrangingfromavailabilityofparticulargoodstothetimingandmodeofuse.Peoplelearnaboutthepotentialforparticularmodesofhuman-objectinteractioninthepublicspherewhenthoseobjectsareobservedeitherdirectlyorbyproxy.Peoplebuypharmaceuticalsfrompublicplaces,cancarrybagsfromVictoriasSecret,andcanbeseencominginandoutofatattooshop.However,thepublicdisplayoftheseproxiesisusuallyaone-timeevent,withsubsequentdisplayafterwardsrestrictedtotheindividualandtotheindividualsmostintimateassociates.Finally,whatisthedifferenceincognitiveimpactbetweenlong-heldgoodsandthosemeanttobedisposed,discarded,orchanged?Theexamplesofpharmaceu-ticals,underwear,andpersonalhygieneitemsgivenaboveallconstituterelativelycheapandmundanetypesofconsumergoods.Thiscontrastswiththeformsofpermanentalterationssuchastattoos,piercings,toothmodificationandcranialdeformationthatareoftenthefocusofdiscussionsaboutindividualidentityandthehumanbody(e.g.,Joyce;Turner).Disposable,ephemeralgoodsarealsodistinctfromheirloomsandothermaterialgoodsthatarecuratedforlongperiodsoftimeandthatinvokenostalgiaandmemorythroughdisplayandtouching(Schiffer1987:35;VanDykeandAlcock2003).Althoughmundaneconsumeritemsultimatelywearoutandarediscarded,theembeddedqualitiesofeasyprocurementandconstantpotentialforchangemayresultinthembeingmorefirmlytiedtoidentitythanone-timemarkersofaction(suchastattoos)ormemory-enhancedsingularevents(suchasaweddingceremony).Inaddition,itemsthatarerelativelycheaphavelowswitchingcosts(meaningthatconsumerscanuseupaproductandtryanewonewithoutincurringasignificantfinancialoremotionalinvestment;cf.Prahalad:20).Goodswithashortuse-life,suchaspharmaceuticals,underwear, InconspicuousConsumption431 andpersonal-careitemsthereforepresentrepeatedopportunitiesforchoicesaboutwhether,how,andwhentoengageinobject-mediatedperformances.Theideaofareflexiveidentityasanevolutionarycomponentofsocialbehaviorenablesarchaeologiststocontributeuniqueperspectivestoscholarlydebatesabouttheemergenceofhumanpsychology.ManyscholarshavesuggestedthatthenotionofapremodernindividualisincorrectbecauseitisbasedinWesternconceptsofessentialism(Fowler;Garvey65;Moore)andidealsofindividualismthataremisplacedwhenappliedtothepast(CsikszentimihalyiandRochberg-Halton190;fordiscussionofhowtheselfhasbeencritiquedasacross-culturalphenomenon,seeHollan).Thereappeartobetwocomponentsofthisargument.Firstistherecognitionthatallpublicperformanceshavemultiplemeaningsandinterpretations,aperspectivethatincorporatedintoeventhesmallestrealmsofperformance.DanielMiller(:10)hasnotedthateveninintimatespacessuchasthephysicalhouseholdthereiscontradictionanddissonanceintherelationshipbetweenpeopleandtheirhomes.Butifinterlocutorsareremovedandtheperformanceisstrictlyprivate,isperformancestillinherentlydissonant?Incontrasttopublicperformancesinwhichtherearealwaysmultiplepossibleinterpretations,privateactionsmaybetheonlycaseofintended,unmediated,unmitigatedandunambiguousdisplay.Anotherreasonforreaffirmingthevalidityoftheessentialistargumentstemsfromchangesinpsychologicalnomenclaturethathaveservedtoconflatethesocialandreflexiveaspectsofperformance.Earlierdiscussionsoftheindividualreferredtoasarelativelycoherentcomponentoftheindividualpsyche,butbythelate1960sthistermwaslargelyreplacedbythetermidentity,atermthatinherentlycontainsnotionsoftheplacethatanindividualholdsinthestructureofthesociety(Deaux:222).Identityprojectedintoasocialroleisvariabledependingonthegroupinwhichtheindividualispresentatanygivenmoment,sincedifferentmodesofspeech,display,styleandinteractionareundertakentoenabletheindividualtointeractmostsuccessfullywithinthatparticulargroup.Buttheseidentities,evenifinternalized,donothaveacompleteone-to-onecorrespondencewithallofthecomponentsofanindividualssenseofself.Instead,wemayconsiderthatapersoncoreselfisfacetedbutstillwholeandcoherentratherthanfragmentedasitmustinvariablybewheninthepublicview.Indeed,thenotionofselfmayfundamentallyrestonasingularformation,thetemporallypersistingsenseofbeingthesameperson,wherebytheindividualorientshimselforherselftotheexternalworld(WolmanThepresenceanddevelopmentofautonomouscognitiveprocesses,materializedintheuseofmaterialculture,enableustodevelopanarchaeologyoftheindividualthathasexplanatorypotential.Theexistenceoftheindividualisfrequentlyacknowledgedinarchaeologicaldiscourse,butalmostimmediatelysubsumedintobroaderexplanatorymodels(e.g.,DeMarraisetal.:16;VanPoolandVanPool93).Detailedexaminationsoftheindividualhavebeenrelegatedtoanarrowrangeofdescriptiveparameters,suchasidentifyingtheidiosyncraticcomponentofcraft-making(e.g.HillandGunn),ortemperingtheimpersonalexplanationofsystemswiththeidentificationofspecificpeople,particularlythoseinwell-preservedcontexts(Hodder).AlthoughHodder()andothershavecalledforamoresophisticatedtreatmentoftheindividualinarchaeologicalcontexts, 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