LEARNING II: INSTRUCTION, PRACTICE, TRANSFER OF TRAINING AN - PowerPoint Presentation

Slide1

LEARNING II: INSTRUCTION, PRACTICE, TRANSFER OF TRAINING AND FEEDBACKSlide2

Learning objectives

understand

the nature and role of instruction

understand

the nature and role of demonstration

understand

and classify different types of practice

understand

the nature and effect of contextual interference

understand

the nature and effect of variability of practice

understand

how and why transfer of training works

be able to define

and classify feedback

understand

the role of feedback in the retention of skills

understand

how

dynamic systems theory accounts

for the effect of practice

understand the implications for coaches and performersSlide3

Instruction

Instruction can be

verbal, visual

or

verbal plus visual

Verbal

Normally given in the form of explicit rules for execution of the skill

It is not possible to articulate all skills

Analogy

can be used as

a form of

verbal instruction

Often used in implicit learning situations

Visual or demonstration

Must be technically correct

Must be motivational

Possibly activates mirror neurons in the

premotor cortex, supplementary motor

area and

somatosensory cortex

Verbal plus visual

Verbal is used to direct learner’s attention to key points in the demonstrationSlide4

Focus of attention

A form of instruction is to direct the learner’s focus of attention prior to beginning practice

Focus can be external or internal

External focus

Focusing on factors outside of the mind or body

Often factors related to outcome

Internal focus

Focusing

on the feel of the movement or

the rules for performing the task

External focus tends to be more advantageous for learningSlide5

Types of practice

Practice can be massed or spaced

Massed

little

or no gap between

trials

Spaced

when practice is interspersed with rest periods or

breaks

Little or no

difference in learning resulting from the two types of

practice

Boredom

or fatigue can set in during massed

practice

Following

a rest, however, there is no difference when retention tests are conductedSlide6

Types of practice

Whole practice

Practising

a task in its

entirety

Realistic

Motivational

Part-practice

Practising

a part of a skill in isolation to the rest of the

task

Can be unrealistic

Part-progressive practice

Task

is broken down into

parts

Individual

practises

part one, then adds part two, followed by part three and so

on

Plateauing can occur when parts are added together

Whole-part-whole practice

Initial whole practice sets the scene for the learner

Part or part-progressive practice is carried out until learner can return to the wholeSlide7

Types of practice

Blocked

practice

when

the learner

practises

one skill continually with no interference from the performance of other

skills

Random practice

the

athlete

performs

two or more skills having random trials on each

skill

Serial

practice

Learner

practises

more than one skill and practice is interspersed between the skills but in a serial

order

Performance immediately after practice is best following blocked practice but

Following a retention test, serial and random practices produce better results

This is the

contextual interference effect

Shea and

Morgan’s

(1979)

theory

of

elaboration

All of the skills

are held in working memory at the same time, thus allowing the learner to compare recall, recognition and sensory consequences of the

different skills

Lee

and

Magill’s

(

1983)

action plan

reconstruction theory.

They

claimed that during random and serial practice

the learner experiences partial or total forgetting of a skill

when working

on the other skills. On returning to the ‘forgotten’ skill, they have to re-plan the way in which they will perform it,

i.e.

re-draw their action

plan

This

aids the development of

schemasSlide8

Types of practice

Variable practice

Use of different initial conditions, therefore

different response parameters are necessary, therefore

mistakes will be made which result in

error labelling, which aids

schema formationSlide9

deliberate practice

It takes 10

years and/or

about

10,000 hours undertaking deliberate

practice to develop expertise (Ericsson

et al

., 1993

)

Deliberate practice requires

time and energy

from the learner

and

Access

to coaches/teachers and training

facilities

It

is not inherently motivating

This may not apply to sport

Deliberate

practice requires

effort

Mental and physicalSlide10

Dynamic systems theory and practice

Practice

is

learning

Coach sets goals

Coach manipulates constraints to aid learning

Constraints can be manipulated in

conditioned games

No dribbling in basketball (task constraint)

Aids learning passing and support play

Using a narrow playing area in field hockey (environmental constraint)

Aids players using the full width of the playing area

Players not allowed to call for the ball (organismic constraint) in soccer

Means that players must look up to see where teammates are positionedSlide11

Transfer of training

The effect that practice on one task has on the learning and/or performance of another task

Can be positive or negative

Practice of one task has

a facilitating effect

on the learning or performance of another

Practice of one task has

an

inhibiting effect

on the learning or performance of another

Proactive

facilitation or inhibition

is when practice

on a task

affects

the learning or performance of a

subsequent

task

Retroactive facilitation or inhibition

is when

practice of

a new

task affects the performance of a

previously learned or

practised

task

Intraclass transfer

Transfer between variations

of the same taskSlide12

Transfer

theorieS

Judd’s (1908)

general elements (principles) theory

Positive

transfer occurs when two tasks require the same or similar

g

eneral

principles

There will be

transfer if two tasks

use

the same

n

eurological

pathways

Thorndike’s (1927)

identical elements theory

Positive transfer will

occur if the purposes of two responses

are

the same regardless of the nature of the

stimulus

Holding (1976)

Positive transfer will occur when a new but similar stimulus requires the use of a well-learned response

This is

stimulus generalization

Negative transfer will occur when the same or similar stimulus requires a new and different response

This is

response generalizationSlide13

Bilateral transfer

Bilateral transfer

refers to

transfer from a limb on one side of the body to another limb on the opposite side of the body

, normally the contralateral limb

Learning with the contralateral limb will be

easier

than initial learning

The better the skill level in the ‘original’ limb, the better the transfer

Bilateral transfer

is aided by

knowledge of the principles

involved in the

movement

May also be aided by

ipsilateral

neural pathways

Left side of the brain controls right side of the body and vice versa but some nerves do not cross over, thus forming

ipsilateral

neural pathways

These send neural messages, albeit weak ones, to the limbs on the same side of the

body

These

weak traces mean that the person is not starting from scratch when learning with the opposite limbSlide14

Feedback

Feedback

is

information

resulting from an action or

response

It can

be visual, proprioceptive, vestibular or

auditory

Intrinsic

or

inherent

feedback

is available to the performer without outside

help

Extrinsic

or

augmented

feedback

is information that is provided for us by some ‘foreign’

body

There are two major forms of

feedback

Knowledge of results

Knowledge of the outcome of the action

Knowledge of performance

Knowledge of the nature of the movement

e.g. feel of the movementSlide15

Device

Uses

Video and high speed film (with or without automated systems linked to computer)

limb angles;

limb speed;

limb position

Force platforms

contact forces (normally foot-ground contact);

changes in momentum;

velocity

Electromyographs

changes in muscle activity during performance;

muscle force;

muscle fatigue

Isokinetic

dynamometry

dynamic movement of a joint during performance;

muscle function; muscle endurance

Electrogoniometry

angular position and displacement of limbs

Accelerators

acceleration of limbs;

acceleration of whole body

MECHANICAL AIDS TO FEEDBACKSlide16

Timing of feedback

performance

feedback

repeat skill

Feedback delay

Post- feedback delay

Inter-trial interval

Length of feedback delay is of little importance

. Interpolated activity can have a negative effect.

Interpolated activity can have a negative effect. If length of delay is

too short,

the learner does not have time to create a new

response.Slide17

Frequency of feedback

Frequency

Absolute frequency

is

the

total number of feedback presentations

received by the

learner

Relative

frequency

is the

percentage of trials

in which feedback is given

100%

relative

frequency can lead to dependency on the coach

Fading technique

Feedback

is given less and less often as the athlete improves

Bandwidth

feedback

The coach sets parameters for performance. If performance falls outside of the parameter, feedback is

given

If

the performer is within the parameter or bandwidth, nothing is

said

This

kind of feedback has generally, although not unequivocally, been seen to be the most beneficialSlide18

Precision of feedback

Can be too precise or too general

It must be meaningful to the learner

There is an

optimal

level for each

task

and

performer

Beginners need

prescriptive

feedback

They need to be told what to do in order to improve

performance

Experienced performers need

descriptive

feedback

They

can resolve the problem themselvesSlide19

Practical implications

Deciding on

content for the season

Must take into account

Nature of the task

Complexity

Neurophysiological demands

Abilities and skills of learners

Also age, motivation levels

Abilities and skills of the coachSlide20

Goal setting for the season

Include

the learner or learners in

the process

Goals then belong to them as much as to the coach

The goals can be

group goals

or

individual goals

or

both

Goals should be

challenging but attainable

Goals need to be both

long-term

and

short-term

Long-term

Can be for the season or several seasons

Short-term

should be stepping-stones to the long-term

goals

They should be measurable (can be a subjective form of measurement)

They should be flexible

May need to be changed if things are not progressing as planned

Can be outcome goals or performance goals

Performance

goals are best suited to beginnersSlide21

The practice session

Be aware of the learners’ characteristics

Age - skill level - learning styles – experience – motivation

Be aware of the nature of the task

Complexity –

neurophysiologcal

factors

Choose the type of practice based on the factors outlined above

Choose types of instruction and feedback

based on the factors outlined above