Strategy Adam Lefstein Institute of Education University of London 20 Bedford Way London WC1H 0AL United Kingdom RQ traces the trajectory of educational ideas through policy curricular materials and enactment in the Examine current English policy regarding the teaching of grammar in prim ID: 631838
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Slide1
Grammar
Week 6 NJ KangSlide2
Rhetorical grammar and the grammar of schooling: Teaching “powerful verbs” in the English National Literacy
Strategy
Adam
Lefstein
Institute of Education, University of London, 20 Bedford Way, London WC1H 0AL, United KingdomSlide3
RQ: traces the trajectory of educational ideas through policy, curricular materials and enactment in the Examine current English policy regarding the teaching of grammar in primary schools, and its enactment in a Year 3 (8-year
olds) literacy lesson
Subjects:
“Low Tide Primary School”,
(
almost 400 pupils) community primary school
in a
suburb of a Southern English city
.
The
majority
of the pupils come from working class backgrounds, and the ethnic background of over three quarters of them is White
British.
Miss Millpond.
Only in her fourth year of full-time teaching, highly regarded by her colleagues and Head teacher
.
She was trained as a teacher after the inception of the NLS, and her lessons were typically textbook exemplifications of
NLS lesson structure and pedagogical principles. Her classroom was also an interesting and genuinely pleasant place to be. In official recognition of her ability, Miss Millpond was granted “Advanced Skills Teacher” status, and at Low Tide Primary School was given responsibility for coordinating gifted and talented
programmes
and made a member of the standards and assessment management team. Slide4
Methods
Data collection included participant observation in the school, formal and informal interviews,
audio-recording of lessons, and individual and group feedback conversations. The theoretical frame, methodology and
outcomes of the broader
study
First
,
comparison between
two approaches to grammar teaching – rule-based vs. rhetorical – that help to frame current English policy and practice.
Second
,
reviewing of recent
developments in English educational
policy with regard to the teaching of grammar, and in particular the background to the National Literacy Strategy (NLS
) adoption of a rhetorical approach to grammar teaching.
Third
,
analysis of
an NLS lesson on “powerful verbs”, showing
how the largely rhetorical grammar teaching materials were enacted in a way that promoted many
rule-based grammar ideas and practices.
Finally
,
exploration of
possible explanations for the lesson outcome, discussing, among other factors, teacher knowledge and skill, NLS structure, the accountability regime, and pedagogic culture.Slide5
Results
While the policy advances a broadly rhetorical approach to grammar and its instruction, the enacted lesson retains a number of features characteristic of the formal, rule-based grammar instruction this policy seeks to replace.
Possible explanations for this outcome, and implications for language education policy have been discussed. Rhetorical grammar teaching has been thwarted by the “grammars” of schooling and educational accountability.
Literature:Slide6
Literature Review
Grammar is the
study of language patterns and structure: not only morphology and syntax, but also elements of semantics and pragmatics
.
Rule-based
grammar
teaching
Rhetorical grammar teachingSlide7
Rule-based vs Rhetorical
grammar teaching
Rhetorical grammar treats grammatical conventions as
resources to be exploited
, rather than
rules
to be followed
.
Slide8
rule-based grammar:– correct and incorrect –
rhetorical grammar: a choice from among possibilities –Effectiveness of using such grammar is depending upon factors such as audience, purpose and context.
Inductive
explorations
of texts, discussion of rhetorical and grammatical choices, and pupil application of grammatical knowledge in written communication tasks.
pupils
“investigate the function of a word class, sentence structure or punctuation mark” by examining and discussing repeated occurrences of that linguistic phenomenon in a text (p. 156
) (
Grammar for Writing handbook (
DfEE
, 2000
),
“
consider the effectiveness of a particular word within a sentence and to
practise
using effective language to suit the audience and purpose of the text” (p. 157);
pupils
focus on a particular grammatical issue in
collectively editing a piece of writing
, “considering the
choices open to them
and discussing the merits of alternative words and structures” (p. 161).
rule-based
grammar teaching
-
distrust
pupils’ tacit linguistic knowledge
(as a source of errors
),
rhetorical grammar teaching is
respectful of pupil intuitions
, and seeks to build upon them in developing explicit grammatical knowledge and pupil critical language awareness.
rule-based
grammar teaching
– use
decontextualised
exercises
,
rhetorical
grammar teaching
-
embedded in
meaningful communicative contexts
..Slide9
Rule-based grammar teaching
Rhetorical
grammar teaching
Correctedness
Effectiveness
Deductive approach
Inductive approach
Explicit teacher directed
teaching
Implicit learner-directed exploitation
Distrust learners’ linguistic knowledge
Trustful
to learners’ ability
Decontextualised
exercise based tasks
Contextualised
communicative contexts based tasksSlide10
Background
The Progressivist educational movement viewed grammar
study as
largely
irrelevant
, boring and a constraint on pupil expression.
the
emphasis on proper English was
criticised
as alienating for working class children, who (like fictional Wilfred above) spoke in ways that deviated
from Standard grammar conventions (e.g.Anderson&Butler,1982).
refute the
assumption that formal grammar teaching improves pupils’ writing (e.g. Braddock, 1963;
Elley
,
Barham
, Lamb, & Wyllie,1976).5
1960s
.
“backtothebasics”of“traditional”schooling,includingtheteachingofgrammar
1980 ~ 1990: Plea for teaching grammar that can be used effectively in a context.Slide11
Principles of “New
Grammar Teaching” (Carter, 1991),
•
Language study should be integrated into real communicative contexts (and not constitute a separate curriculum subject).
•
Language study should build on pupils’ experience, facilitating reflection on their tacit knowledge.
• Knowledge about language is important as a means of developing linguistic tolerance and understanding how power
and values are communicated through language.
•
Teachers
’ professional knowledge about language enables them to facilitate pupils’ learning flexibly and effectively
.
•
Language is intrinsically interesting, and that alone is reason enough to warrant its study in school.Slide12
Deductive versus inductive grammar instruction: Investigating possible relationships between gains, preferences and learning styles.
Jean, G., & Simard, D. (2013).
System
,
41
(4), 1023-1042.Slide13
Research Questions
1. After experiencing both a deductive and an inductive treatment of a grammatical feature, which treatment did the learners prefer in terms of effectiveness and interest?
2. In there a difference in gains between learners who received preferred instruction type, and between learners who rated the different aspects of the treatment highly and those who did not?
3. Is there a difference in gains depending on students’ learning styles as assessed through a self-report learning style survey?
4. Did learners with certain learning styles rated the unit differently or expressed different learning preferences?Slide14
What is it?
The
_________ approach
is based on the assumption
that knowledge
of grammatical rules should be acquired through exposure to samples of speech that present a particular construction
.
Students are to elicit the rule from the given input and subconsciously learn it by recognizing the reoccurring patterns.
Proponents
of
____________
approach to grammar instruction, on the other hand, claim that an introduction of a new structure should be commenced with an explicit presentation of the rule that governs the structure. The presentation is followed by examples which show to students how the rule is used in context.Slide15
In a
________
classroom, the teacher conducts lessons by introducing and explaining concepts to students, and then expecting students to complete tasks to practice the concepts; this approach is very teacher-
centred
. Conversely,
_______________
instruction is a much more student-
centred
approach and makes use of a strategy known as ‘noticing’. Slide16
Participants
138 secondary school students, from the ages of 12 and 14, from two different English schools in the greater region of Montreal in Canada participated in this study.
They were enrolled in regular French as a second language courses as it was compulsory to resident in the location.Slide17
Method
pre-and post-treatment tests,
treatment
appraisal and preference questionnaires, and
learning
style survey.Slide18
Findings
Research question
1: the
majority of students prefer the grammar activities from the deductive unit, however, they experience some advantages in the inductive unit.
Research
question
2: the
result of the pre- and post- treatment test, a preference for one treatment or the other did not generally influence their gains in that unit, neither positively or negatively.
R
esearch
question 3, learning styles
do not necessarily affect their performance neither positively or negatively
Research question
4: there
was no relationship to influence the selection of preference between learning style and unit appraisal and preference.Slide19
Conclusion
1. grammatical
learning gains can be made with one approach or the other.
2. learners
prefer to learn grammar deductively; however, they can recognize the effectiveness of two approaches.
3,
learning gains are not significantly influenced by preferences in terms
of
approaches and learning styles.
4,
positive reactions to different approach of one unit or the other derive interesting results such as, inductive approach leads extroverted, open, global, and synthetic learning styles but deductive approach leads introverted, closure-oriented, particular, and analytic learning styles.Slide20
Teacher beliefs and intentions regarding the instruction of English grammar under national curriculum reforms: A Theory of Planned
Behaviour
perspective.
Underwood, P. R. (2012).
Teaching
and Teacher education
,
28
(6), 911-925.Slide21
Research Questions
This
study examined two questions for teaching English grammar as below;
1. What factors do Japanese teachers believe could influence their teaching of English grammar under new national curriculum reforms?
2. Which of these beliefs might be influential in determining implementation of these reforms?Slide22
Literature Review
Language
Teacher Cognition (LTC) by
Brog
(2006)
it
didn’t satisfy the efficacy of the framework in explaining teacher’s behavior.
psychological
process and motivation were considered as factors to influence on teacher’s
behaviour
.
the
researcher chose the Theory of Planned
Behaviour
(TPB;
Ajzen
1985, 1991, 2005) as the theoretical background in this study. Slide23
TPB (Theory of Planned
Behaviour
)
was
the extended version of Theory of Respond Action by
Ajzen
and
Fishbein
(1980).
a
person’s intention, or motivation to adopt
behaviour
is influenced by three main determinants and their respective attributes:
behavioural
beliefs and attributes towards
the
behaviour
n
ormative
beliefs and subjective norms;
control
beliefs and perceptions of control.
This
study attempts to analysis data based on these three determinants.Slide24
Theory of Planned Behavior proposed by
Ajzen
(1985, 1991, 2005)
Is designed
to explain and predict human behavior and to provide a framework for devising behavioral change interventions.
The
theory was developed to account for behavior that is not entirely under volitional control from the
theory of reasoned action
, which was based in part on Expectancy-Value Theory.
According
to the TPB, a person’s intention, or
motivation
to adopt a behavior is influenced by three main determinants:
(
1) behavior beliefs and attitudes towards the behavior-it is personal in nature and is formed through associating performance of a behavior with certain outcomes, or attitudes;
(
2) normative beliefs and subjective norms-it reflects a social influence and arises from a person’s perception that influential others would approve or disapprove of their adopting the behavior;
(
3) control beliefs and perceptions of control-it deals with the presence or absence of factors that would facilitate or inhibit adoption of the behavior.Slide25
Expectancy-Value Theory
History
and Orientation
Expectancy value theory is directly linked to uses and gratifications theory. The theory was founded by Martin
Fishbein
in the 1970s.
Core Assumptions and Statements
Core:
According to expectancy-value theory, behavior is a function of the expectancies one has and the value of
the goal
toward which one is working. Such an approach predicts that, when more than one behavior is possible,
the behavior chosen will be the one with the largest combination of expected success and value
.
Expectancy-value
theories hold that people are
goal-oriented beings
. The behaviors they perform in response to their beliefs and values are undertaken to achieve some end. However, although expectancy-value theory can be used to explain central concepts in uses and gratifications research, there are other factors that influence the process. For example the social and psychological origins of needs, which give rise to motives for behavior, which may be guided by beliefs, values, and social circumstances into seeking various gratifications through media consumption and other
nonmedia
behaviors
.Slide26
Expectancy-Value Theory
Statements
:
Expectancy value theory suggests that “people orient themselves to the world according to their expectations (beliefs) and evaluations”. Utilizing this approach, behavior, behavioral intentions, or attitudes are seen as a function of “(1) expectancy (or belief) – the perceived probability that an object possesses a particular attribute or that a behavior will have a particular consequence; and (2) evaluation – the degree of affect, positive or negative, toward an attribute or behavioral outcome” (
Palmgreen
, 1984
).Slide27
Participants
6
Japanese English teachers
at
a private senior high school in central Tokyo participated in two focus groups, and
10
teachers
from
two private schools in an urban location and one public senior high school in a rural location participated for surveys. Slide28
Method
interviews
of two focus groups
belief
questionnaire
surveys in
both Japanese and
E
nglish
.
The
semi-structured interview
conducted
in English for approximately 1
hourSlide29
Findings
Behavioural
beliefs: teachers
feel difficulty in conceiving how the integration of grammar with communication-oriented activities could be realized in their classes.
Normative beliefs: students
were the most key influencer for approval and disapproval of their adoption of a reform-oriented approach to grammar instruction. As senior high school students’ study mostly focused on University Entrance Exams, only novice teachers and parents consider of development of the students’ communication skills.
Control beliefs:
teachers
thought difficulty caused by the lack of time to implement a reform-oriented approach to teaching grammar.
most
of teachers thought that the necessary teaching skills for reform-oriented approach belonged to a few specific teachers.
Japanese
teachers felt difficult to teach grammar in English.
teachers
’ understanding of the COS 2009 was insufficient for adoption of the reform-oriented approach.
teachers
concerned about the urgency of appropriate materials to utilize.Slide30
Foreign language learners’ beliefs about grammar instruction and error correction.
Incecay
, V., & Dollar, Y. K. (2011).
Procedia-Social
and Behavioral Sciences
,
15
, 3394-3398.Slide31
Research Questions
1. What primary construct are existing in foreign language learners’ responses to a questionnaire regarding their beliefs about grammar instruction and error correction?
2. What statements do foreign language learners provide about grammar instruction and error correction?Slide32
Participants
26
university students who were studying English as a foreign language
at
Yeditepe
University in Turkey Slide33
Method
Questionnaire about
grammar instruction and error correction,
developed
by
Leowen
et al. (2009).
It
involved two different parts: a Likert-scale section and an open-ended prompt section.
Participants
completed this questionnaire during the class hour in the fall semester of the 2010 to 2011 academic year.Slide34
Findings
L
earners
gave importance to grammar instruction and they thought grammar was important. They were also in favor of immediate correction and they thought grammatical awareness as useful and helpful for them in the language learning process.
Learners
had a negative
attitude
toward grammar instruction. It means that learners think grammatical awareness is important and useful and grammar instruction is important, however, they prefer communicative activities, authentic materials, and real word activities with interaction during instruction.