Biotechnology - PowerPoint Presentation

Slide1

BiotechnologySlide2

Biotechnology

Literally translated means “life technology”

Applying knowledge about living things for the practical use of human kind

How long do you think biotechnology has existed?Slide3

Buzz Words in Biotechnology

Genetic Engineering

Stem Cell Research

Cloning

Bioterror

Forensic Science

GMO (genetically modified

organsim

)

Pharmacogenomics

Personalized Medicine

Human

Genome ProjectSlide4

Place to following in order from smallest to largest

Atom

Cell

Ecosystem

Organ

Organism

Biosphere

Molecule (DNA)

Population

Electron

Organelle

Community

Proton

Tissue

Organ system

Virus Slide5

In Your Journal

Can all forms of technology be used to study all of these aspects of biology?

Explain!Slide6

3 Main Types of Experiments

in vitro: experiments done in glass,

testubes

, or

petri

dishes. Not in living

multicellular

organisms

in vivo: in a living cell or organism

in

silico

: experiments done through computer simulation or programming

Biotechnology demands synthetic thinking that incorporates knowledge from all 3 types of experimentsSlide7

Biotechnology

The technical aspects of life involve the complex chemical interactions that take place among the several thousand different kinds of molecules found in any living organism

Macromolecules in living things can be classified into 1 of 4 categories

Protein Nucleic Acid

Carbohydrate LipidSlide8

Biotechnologies Macromolecules

Protein

Essential parts of organisms that participate in virtually every process within cells.

Cell structure

Signaling

Transport

Biological catalysts

Immune response

Nucleic Acids

Contain the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms

and viruses

.

2 types :

DNA

RNASlide9

Proteins: Essential Parts of Organisms

Many proteins are

enzymes

that catalyze biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism.

Some have structural or mechanical functions

actin

and myosin in muscle

proteins in the cytoskeleton maintains cell shape.

Other proteins are important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, and the cell cycle. Slide10

DNA: the Master Molecule

Of the several thousand macromolecules needed to keep living things alive, DNA is the master molecule in whose structure is encoded all the information needed to create and direct the chemical machinery of life (mainly proteins)Slide11

DNA: the Master Molecule

DNA accomplishes this by providing a template to make RNA, which in turn acts is the instructions to build proteins, which are essentially the building blocks and machinery that allow for life

Analysis of the flow and regulation of this genetic information from

DNA

 RNA  Protein

is the subject of molecular geneticsSlide12

Molecular Genetics

aka: molecular biology

Has blurred the lines between biology, physics, and chemistry

It arose from a confluence of disciplines from both the physical sciences and the natural sciences

Genetics Biochemistry

Physical chemistry Microbiology

Quantum mechanics VirologySlide13

Biotechnology & Molecular Biology

Bio = Life

Molecular biology studies the relationship between DNA

 RNA  Protein

Technology :

Technology is a term with origins in the Greek

technología

téchnē

= 'craft'

logía

= the study of somethingSlide14

Molecular Biology Arises F

rom a Structure-Function Tradition Slide15

Structure & Function

Natural scientists have always tried to find relationships between structure & function

This pursuit began with the examination of obvious physical attributes

Physicians from the earliest civilizations tried to relate their knowledge of the human body to the treatment of illnessSlide16

Matthias Schleiden & Theodor Schwann

Advanced part of the cell theory in the 1830’s

Individual cells are the basic units of structure and function in both plants and animals

Organs were now seen to be composed of tissues

Tissues are groups of cells with similar structures that perform similar functions

Moved structure functionalism beyond systems directly observable with the naked eye

Determined all plants are made of cells

Determined all animals are made of cellsSlide17

Cells

Cells in turn were found to be composed of organelles, each of which has its own specific function

Mitochondria produce energy

Lysosomes

digest waste and cellular debris

Ribosomes

make protein

Chloroplast do photosynthesis to make sugar

By the 1930’s the stage was set for structure functionalism to move to the level of biologically important moleculesSlide18

4 Characteristics of Life

ReproductionOrganized structure composed of 1 or more cells

The ability to respond to your environment and maintain homeostasis

The ability to transform energySlide19

Molecular Biology

Molecular biology arose from the quest to define the nature of heredity

Reproduction

is perhaps the most distinctive attribute of life

Replication of

multicellular

organisms all begin the same way, with replication of a cell

To explain replication of cells and inheritance of traits over successive generations is, in large measure, to define lifeSlide20

The Biotechnology Revolution

We now understand the nature of heredity and so have answered many of the questions of the genomic era

As we move into the post-genomic era the question is not about how things are inherited, but rather can we manipulate them!

This is the subject of this classSlide21

Bear in Mind…

100 years ago there was no explanation why some siblings have brown eyes and other blue

75 years ago the physical structures of simple organic molecules were unknown

50 years ago we did not know the correct # of human chromosomes

25 years ago we did not know any of the genes behind cancer

We still do not know how many genes are in the human genome!Slide22

Heredity

Scientific study of heredityHeredity: the transmission of genetic characters from parents to offspring:

it is dependent upon the segregation and recombination of genes during meiosis and fertilization

it results in the creation of a new individual similar to others of its kind but exhibiting certain variationsSlide23

How are Traits passed on from 1 Generation to the Next

Enter Austrian Monk

Gregor

Mendel

Crossed different varieties of garden pea plants and using mathematical analysis provided a basis for inheritance

Brought the hereditary process down to the individual organism

Provided a mechanism to drive evolutionSlide24

Types of Hybridization

P generation = parental generation

True breeding parents

F

1

generation = 1

st

filial or 1

st

generation of offspring

F

2

generation = 2

nd

filial, or 2

nd

generation of offspringSlide25

Vocabulary

Gene: sequence of DNA that codes for a protein and thus determines a trait

Allele: 1 of a number of different forms of a gene

Gamete

: A reproductive cell having the haploid number of chromosomes, especially a mature sperm or egg capable of fusing with a gamete of the opposite sex to produce the fertilized egg Slide26

Homozygous: pair of identical alleles for a trait

Heterozygous: Having 2 different alleles for a trait

Genotype

: an organisms genetic makeup

Phenotype

: an organisms outward appearanceSlide27

How are Traits passed on from 1 Generation to the Next

Mendel showed that “traits” are inherited in a predictable manner through what we now know are “genes”

Genes governing individual traits do not “blend” but rather are maintained as discrete bits of hereditary information

Useful traits can be accentuated through controlled matingSlide28

Mendels Hypothesis

Genes can have alternate versions called

alleles

.

Each offspring inherits two alleles, one from each parent

If the two alleles differ, the

dominant

allele

is expressed. The

recessive allele

remains hidden unless the dominant allele is absent. from each parent

The two alleles for each trait separate during gamete formationSlide29

Mendelian inheritance has its physical basis in the behavior of chromosomes

Chromosome Theory of Inheritance

States: Genes have specific loci (locations) along chromosomes, and it is the chromosomes that undergo segregation and independent assortment, rather than the individual genes

Developed in 1902 by Walter

Sutton

& Theodor

BoveriSlide30

Thomas Morgan Hunt

Chose to use fruit flies as a test organism in genetics.

Allowed the first tracing of traits to specific chromosomes

There are many genes, but only a few chromosomes.

Therefore, each chromosome must carry a number of genes together as a “package”.

Traits that are located on the same chromosome, and so tend to be inherited together, are called

Linked GenesSlide31

Linked Genes

All genes found on the same chromosome are said to be linkedIf genes on the same chromosome are 100% linked, you would only produce the parental phenotype for that chromosome, and as you can see in the previous picture, that is not the caseSlide32

Genetic Recombination

The production of offspring with combinations of traits that differ from those found in either parent

3 Types of Genetic Recombination

Recombination of unlinked genes due to independent assortment

Recombination of linked genes due to crossing over

Recombination of genes due to human manipulationSlide33

DNA: The Genetic Material

Learning about DNA contributes to our knowledge of…

genetic disorders

viral diseases

cancer

aging

genetic engineering

criminal investigations

Why its importantSlide34

Objectives

Relate

Griffith’s conclusions to the observations he made during the transformation experiments.

Summarize

the steps involved in Avery’s transformation experiments, and state the results.

Evaluate

the results of the Hershey and Chase experiment.Slide35

New Vocabulary

VaccineVirulentTransformation

BacteriophageSlide36

DNA

What does DNA stand for?

What subunits make up

DNA?

What three parts do the

subunits consist of?

deoxyribonucleic acid

nucleotides

phosphate group,

Pentose (5 carbon) sugar,

& a nitrogenous baseSlide37

Friedrich Miescher

DNA was first identified as far back as ________ by a Swiss scientist named Friedrich ____________

He extracted DNA from the _________ of pus cells found on surgical bandages

At first DNA was called __________ because it was a substance found in the nucleus

1868

Miescher

nuclei

nucleinSlide38

Miescher was also able to separate the substance into two basic parts…

The phosphate groups, also called phosphoric

acid,were

slightly acidic, so DNA belongs to a class of substances called nucleic acids

Throughout the next century, scientists made many exciting discoveries about the function and structure of DNASlide39

Transformation

Griffith’s Experiments

In 1928, Frederick Griffith, a bacteriologist, carried out an experiment that led to an accidental discovery about DNA

He was actually trying to prepare a vaccine against the bacteria,

Streptococcus

pneumoniae

, which causes pneumoniaSlide40

Griffith was working with two strains of S. pneumoniae

…One enclosed in a capsule of polysaccharides, that protects the bacterium from the body’s defense system

This helps make the bacterium

virulent, or able to cause

disease

Smooth-edged S strain

The other strain lacks the polysaccharide capsule and is unable to cause disease

Rough – edged= R strainSlide41

In Griffith’s experiment, he injected mice with…

S bacteria

R bacteria

Heat-killed S bacteria

Heat-killed S bacteria and normal R bacteriaSlide42

Note about “heat-killing”…

During Griffith’s time, it was

not

understood that DNA can tolerate temperatures around 90

°C without being altered, but ___________ are altered at around 60°C

So “heat-killing” damages a cells proteins and _______________, but leaves DNA intact

proteins

enzymesSlide43

Griffiths Discovery of TransformationSlide44

Somehow, the harmless R bacteria had changed and become ______________

Griffith had discovered what is now called ____________________

Occurs when a cell picks up new DNA from it’s _____________, changing its combination of genes, called a _________________

virulent

transformation

environment

genotypeSlide45

Heat-killed S bacteria

is ____________ down

and its DNA escapes to

the environment

A receptor protein on the

R bacteria receives the S

bacteria DNA

Receptor

protein

brokenSlide46

Then restriction enzymes _________ and _________

the two pieces of DNA together

Restriction

enzyme

cut

pasteSlide47

But during Griffith’s time, scientists really didn’t understand transformation

During the 1940s and 1950s, scientists were still debating over what cell part contained genetic information

Many scientists actually thought that ___________ contained our genetic information, and not DNA.

proteinsSlide48

Oswald Avery

In 1944, a scientist named Oswald __________ conducted a transformation experiment under

4 different

conditions…

Condition 1: Added an enzyme that destroyed ________

Condition 2: Added an enzyme that destroyed ________

Condition 3: Added an enzyme that destroyed ___ Condition 4: Added an enzyme that destroyed ________

Result?

Transformation was only stopped by the enzymes that destroyed DNA, so it must contain the genetic material!

Avery

proteins

DNA

lipids

CarbsSlide49

Despite Avery’s results, scientists remained _____________

Since proteins are so important to many cell _____________ and _______________, most scientists still thought that proteins contained the genetic material

skeptical

structures

metabolismSlide50

Hershey and Chase

In 1952, Alfred ___________ and Martha _____________ set out to settle the controversy.

Their experiments made use of a

bacteriophage

which is a type of virus that attacks and infect bacterial cells

A virus is much

smaller than

a cell and consists

of a nucleic acid. Either

________ or ________

(never both) surrounded

by a protective protein coat called

a

DNA

Capsid

Hershey

Chase

DNA

RNA

capsidSlide51

A special type of virus that infects ________________ cells is called a __________________ or a _________ for short

The viral DNA is contained in the ________ and the tail __________ attach to the bacteria cell

After attachment, the DNA is injected into cell, almost like a _________

Capsid with DNA

Tail Fibers

bacteria

bacteriophage

phage

capsid

fibers

shotSlide52

The bacteriophage made the perfect test subject, because it was a simple substance that contained both ________ and ____________

Scientists knew that DNA contained a ____________ group

They also knew that proteins often contain the element __________

DNA

proteins

phosphate

sulfurSlide53

So Hershey and Chase labeled the phages with one of the following radioactive isotopes…

______, which would be found in DNA______, which would

be found in the

protein coat

32

P

35

SSlide54

These radioactive isotopes will __________ or break down into stable particles that can be ____________ with machines

Next the labeled phages

were allowed to

___________ the

bacteria cells

decay

detected

infectSlide55

Hershey and Chase then checked to see which

parts of the phage entered the bacteria cellsFirst the phages that

were still attached to

the bacteria cells were

removed with a

__________________

blenderSlide56

Then the bacteria cells and the phages were placed in test tubes and

spun in a machine called a centrifuge

Which spins, causing

the different substances

settle out by _________

weightSlide57

The heavier bacteria cells settled at the __________ of the test tubes while the lighter phages

remained suspended in the supernatant at the top of the tubeOnly the ______ isotope was found inside of the bacteria cells

35

S test tube

(protein)

32

P test tube

(DNA)

Bacteria

cells

Phages

35

S

32

P

bottom

32

PSlide58

So based on these results… which substance, proteins or DNA, would you conclude is responsible for transformation?

35

S test tube

(protein)

32

P test tube

(DNA)

Bacteria

cells

Phages

35

S

32

P

DNASlide59

Time Line

1866- Mendel's Paper1875- Mitosis worked out

1890's- Meiosis worked out

1902- Sutton,

Boveri

et. al

. connect chromosomes to Meiosis.

1907-

Morgans

“fly room” provides support for chromosomes as the hereditary material