PYC 4217 Psychology of Creativity Revised July 30 2014 1 Cognitive Approach to Studying the Creative Process Study the cognitive abilities that everyone shares such as cognitive structures memory and attention ID: 635149
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Creative Process
Charles Burack, Ph.D.PYC 4217 Psychology of CreativityRevised July 30 2014
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Cognitive Approach to Studyingthe Creative Process
Study the cognitive abilities that everyone shares, such as cognitive structures, memory, and attentionGenerally propose stage models of creativity
2-stage
balloon model
: 1) use divergent thinking to generate many possibilities; 2) use convergent thinking to pick the best idea (Sawyer, 2012)Sawyer’s (2012) 8-stage modelWallas’s (1926) 4-stage model: 1) preparation; 2) incubation; 3) illumination; 4) verification
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2-Stage Geneplore Model
Creativity involves an interplay of generative and exploratory processes (Finke, Ward, & Smith, 1992)Stage 1,
Generative processes
: include memory retrieval, association, mental synthesis, transformation, analogical transfer, and category reduction; are assumed to result in
candidate ideas (sometimes called preinventive forms/structures) that are not necessarily complete creative solutions but represent possible starting points (ambiguous, preliminary, or prototype versions of an idea) that either facilitate or inhibit creative outcomes Stage 2, Exploratory processes: the creative potential of selected ideas is then developed by way of specific exploratory processes that modify, elaborate, consider the implications, assess the limitations, or otherwise transform the
preinventive
structures; expand on the creative potential of the structures; the model assumes that people can use properties, such as apparent novelty and aesthetic appeal, to determine which structures should be retained for further processing
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8 Stages of the Creative Process
Find and formulate the problem
Acquire
knowledge
relevant to the problemGather a broad range of potentially related informationTake time off for incubationGenerate a large variety of ideasCombine
ideas in unexpected ways
Select
the best ideas, applying relevant criteria
Externalize
the idea using materials and representations
Source: Sawyer (2012, pp. 89-90; boldface added)
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1. Find and Formulate the Problem
Creativity as a form of problem solving (Flavell & Draguns, 1957; Newell, Shaw, & Simon, 1962; Guilford, 1967; Kaufmann, 1988;
Klahr
, 2000;
Klahr & Simon, 1999).Problem solving occurs in an imaginary “problem solving space”; one needs to find a “solution path” through the space from the starting state to the goal (Newell et al., 1962)“A problem exists when there is a discrepancy between an initial state and a goal state, and there is no ready-made solution for the problem solver” (
Bransford
& Stein, 1984, p. 7)(boldface added)
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2. Acquire Knowledge Relevantto the Problem
Learn the symbols, language, and conventions
of the
domain
10-Year Rule first discovered for expert telegraphers (Bryan & Harter, 1899)10-Year Rule for international-level chess players (Simon & Chase, 1973)10-Year Rule for wide range of domains (Gardner, 1993)10-Year Rule for top professionals (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Romer, 1993; Ericsson et al., 2006); engage in at least 10,000 hours of deliberate practiceInformation encoding is facilitated by devoting time to factual information, discounting irrelevant information, and attending to inconsistent information (Mumford et al. 1996)
Exceptional creativity is supported by
early learning
(John-Steiner, 1985) and
mentoring
(Zuckerman, 1974; Torrance, 1983)
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3. Gather a Broad Range ofPotentially Related Information
Exceptional creators effectively and efficiently use appropriate categories to see gaps and difficulties (Perkins, 1981)Visual perception is constructed in the visual cortex from neuronal input from senses and from higher brain regions
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4. Take Time Off for Incubation
Creative solutions often incubate while a person stops working on a problem, engages in an unrelated activity, or works on another problem (Csikszentmihalyi & Sawyer, 1995, Sawyer, 2012).Unconscious processing has a greater information capacity
than conscious processing and operates in
parallel
(Dijksterhuis & Nordgren, 2006; Lieberman et al., 2002).Research evidence for incubation effect: value of interruptions for performance on RAT and puzzles (Patrick, 1986; Beeftink, van Eerde, & Rutte
, 2008).
Talk aloud procedure
(conscious, verbal processing) can interfere with creativity (
Schooler
,
Ohlsson, & Brooks, 1993)Much of everyday creativity is conscious and directed
(Sternberg, 2003)
Creative benefit of instruction to “
be creative
” (Howard-Jones et al., 2005)
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How Incubation Works“In
sum, there’s experimental evidence [that]… incubation works because it gives people’s minds a rest. . . provides time for spreading activation [via mind’s semantic network] in the unconscious mind . . . provides opportunities for ‘opportunistic assimilation’ [due to environmental stimuli cueing ‘failure indices’ in long-term memory]” (Sawyer, 2012, p. 103; see also Seifert et al.
1995; boldface added)
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5. Generate a Large Variety ofIdeas
Fixation on incorrect solutions (which often happens in the tip-of-the tongue phenomenon and when misleading hints or examples are given), as well as structured imagination (based on assumed properties), interfere with our capacity to generate original solutions (
Roediger
& Neely, 1982; Smith &
Dodds, 1999; Smith, 1995; Reason & Lucas, 1984; Smith & Blankenship, 1989; Finke et al., 1992)Many people generate the solution to an insight problem without realizing it (Kotovsky, 2003; Beeman & Bowden, 2000; Bowers et al. 1990)Eliminating false assumptions only makes it slightly easier to solve insight problems (Weisberg & Alba, 1981)
Solving insight problems often requires
expertise and prior experience
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6. Combine Ideas in UnexpectedWays
Creative cross-fertilization often occurs when people work on multiple projects and in multiple domains
(Koestler, 1964; Simonton, 1988)
The
most relevant mental processes to creativity are probably conceptual combination, metaphor, and analogy (Mumford & Gustafson, 1988; Ward, Smith, & Vaid, 1997)Conceptual combination is “a process whereby previously separate ideas, concepts, or other forms are mentally
merged.
The
elements to be combined can be words, concepts, visual forms, and other simple elements, or at a more abstract level, they can be hypothetical scientific constructs, mystical styles, artistic genres, and so on” (Ward &
Kolomyts
, p. 2010, p. 101).
Emergent attributes are more likely to occur when less related concepts are combined (Hampton, 1987); emergent attributes are “salient properties that are
either absent from or very low in salience
for the representations of either of their components
elements”(Ward &
Kolomyts
, 2010, p. 101). (boldface added)
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Concepts as Data StructureSchema and frame models
present concepts as data structures; each concept is mentally stored as a set of properties (attributes) with values
(variable quantities, qualities)
for each property (Sawyer, 2012)Schema: “mental frameworks for representing knowledge that encompass an array of interrelated concepts in a meaningful organization” (Sternberg & Mio, 2009)Frames: “schemas that represents the physical structure of the environment” (Kellogg, 2003)12Slide13
Various Types of Combinations
Simple (especially for combining similar concepts): selective modification (Smith & Osherson, 1984; adjective’s property and value modify property of noun); attribute inheritance
(Hampton, 1987; combination inherits all of properties of component concepts but must not inherit impossible features and must inherit necessary features; car boat);
Complex
(especially for combining very different concepts): emergence (Wisneiwski, 1997; boomerang flu); property mapping (Wisniewski & Gentner, 1991; merge just one value from one concept with second concept; pony chair); concept specialization (Cohen & Murphy, 1984; influence of general knowledge; apartment dog);
structure mapping
;
concept transfer
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More on Combinations
The dissimilarity (not just opposition) of the components of a combination determines the extent to which they will yield emergent properties; second interpretations
yielded more
emergent properties,
especially for similar pairs, indicating that people may use up their easiest interpretation first and then engage in more creative exploration to produce a second interpretation (Wilkenfeld and Ward, 2001)Merging visually presented abstract forms can lead to emergent new ideas (Rothenberg & Sobel, 1980)
Forced
re-interpretation
of one’s own combination increases creativity; often produces an illusion of intentionality
(Finke 1990)
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Metaphors
The Greek root of metaphor means “carrying from one place to
another” (Abrams, 1988, p. 65)
In literature, a metaphor is a
figure of speech involving “a word or expression which in literal usage denotes one kind of thing or action is applied to a distinctly different kind of thing or action, without asserting a comparison [i.e. without using ‘like’ or ‘as’]” (Abrams, 1988, p. 65)Concept transfer occurs in metaphors; metaphors map features/information from one concept to another; specifically, they map a vehicle
concept onto
topic (tenor) concept
: “Business is war” (topic is “business”; vehicle is “war”) (Genter
, 1989; Richards, 1936)
"Metaphor is
for most people a device of the poetic imagination and the rhetorical flourish --a matter of extraordinary language rather than ordinary language
. . . . We
have found, on the contrary, that
metaphor is pervasive in everyday life
, not just in language but in thought and action. Our
ordinary conceptual system
, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in
nature." (
Lakoff
& Johnson, 1980, p.3)
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More on Metaphor
In his book, Nature, Ralph Waldo Emerson said, “The world is emblematic. . . .the whole of nature is a metaphor of the human mind. The laws of moral nature answer to those of matter . . . . The axioms of physics translate the laws of ethics. Thus, ‘the whole is greater than its part;’ ‘reaction is equal to action’. . . . Every property of matter is a school for the understanding” (Nature, pp. 16, 19
).
In his essay, “Education by Poetry” (1931).Robert Frost said, “What
I am pointing out is that unless you are at home in the metaphor, unless you have had your proper poetical education in the metaphor, you are not safe anywhere. Because you are not at ease with figurative values: you don’t know the metaphor in its strength and its weakness. You don’t know how far you may expect to ride it and when it may break down
with you. You are not safe with science; you are not safe in
history.” (boldface added)
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Analogies
Analogy: “A similarity in some respects between things that are otherwise dissimilar” (American Heritage Dictionary, 2011, p. 64); Gr. ana=according to; Gr. logos
=speech word, reason, proportion
Analogical
reasoning or transfer is “the application or projection of knowledge from a familiar domain to a novel or less familiar one” (Ward & Kolomyts, 2010, p. 104)Analogies involve concept transfer and map from a base (source) domain to a target (Genter
, 1989
); in “Earth
is like a living organism,” the base is “a living organism
” and the
target is “
Earth.”Analogizing is “realiz[
ing
] that
two apparently different
things
share important properties or
functions
. . . .
It is critical to this process that analogies
not be confused with similarities
. Analogies recognize a
correspondence of inner relationship or of function
between two (or more) different phenomena or complex sets of phenomena.
”
(Root-Bernstein & Root-Bernstein, 1999,
pp. 25, 142). (emphasis added)
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ImageryThe
most novel invented images tend to bring together unusual parts (Finke & Slayton, 1988)There appear to be creative benefits of combining visual materials without a specific goal in mind (i.e., without choosing or being assigned in advance the category) and then
later interpreting
them in an exploratory
phase of processing (Finke 1990) (boldface added)18Slide19
Changing Instructions to Enhance Creativity
Instructions to identify shared and unshared features of different categories facilitated the generation of more original and higher quality combinations (Baughman & Mumford, 1995)Feature-mapping instructions contribute to the originality and quality of combining related categories (Mumford et al., 1997)Metaphor instructions
contribute to the originality and quality of combining unrelated categories (Mumford et al., 1997)
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Models of Different Types of Insights
Ohlsson’s (1992) 3 forms of restructuring: 1) elaboration (add new information to the original, incomplete representation) ; 2) re-encoding
(reject some of original interpretation and develop new representation; 3)
constraint relaxation
(change inappropriate representation of goal state)Boden’s (2004) 3 types of creativity: 1) combinatorial (combine familiar concepts; no change to conceptual space), 2) exploratory (use existing styles or rules within existing space to identify a new point), 3) transformational (alter a defining dimension of the space)
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Sternberg’s Propulsion Model
Sternberg (1999) proposed that there are eight types of creative contributions: 1) replication (field is unchanged); 2) redefinition
(redefine field from
different viewpoint); 3) forward incrementation (move field in current direction); 4) advance forward incrementation (move field rapidly in current direction); 5) redirection
(redirect field to different direction); 6)
reconstruction
(move field back to an imagined past state but with goal of redirecting); 7)
reinitiation
(start field from scratch
); 8) integration (integrate two formerly distinct ways of thinking)
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7. Select the Best Ideas, ApplyingRelevant Criteria
Consciously evaluate and select the most useful, appropriate, or worthwhile ideasEvaluation of novelty and appropriateness is based on internalized model of the domain and field (
Bink
& Marsh, 2000;
Csikszentmihalyi & Sawyer, 1995)Evaluation occurs in all stages of the processStrong relationship between productivity and significant creations (Simonton, 1988): the most eminent creators were often the most productive, and during their most productive periods they were more likely to produce a significant creation
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Evaluation AccuracyLaboratory studies
show that evaluation accuracy is related to idea generation (Runco, 1991, 2003; Runco & Dow, 2004; Silvia, 2008)People are more accurate in rating: 1) their
own ideas
for
uniqueness; 2) others’ ideas for popularity (Runco & Chand, 1994; Runco & Smith, 1992)
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Evaluation Criteria
12 commonly used evaluation criteria (Blair & Mumford, 2007): 1) risky; 2) easy to understand; 3) original; 4) complete description; 5) complicated; 6) consistent with existing social norms; 7) high probability of success; 8) easy to implement; 9) benefits many people; 10) produces desires societal rewards; 11) time and effort required to implement; 12) complexity of implementationTwo main issues considered
when evaluating new ideas:
1
) resources needed for implementation; 2) consequences of implementation (Dailey & Mumford, 2006)24Slide25
8. Externalize the Idea UsingMaterials and Representations
Largely involves conscious and directed thinkingOccurs throughout the creative process
“Successful creators are skilled at
executing
their ideas, predicting how others might react to them and being prepared to respond, identifying the necessary resources to make them successful, forming plans for implementing the ideas, and improvising to adjust their plans as new information arises” (Sawyer, 2012, pp. 133-134)Eminent creators often externalize their early thoughts and intuitions in
sketches, brief notebook entries, and quick prototypes
, using an “inner shorthand” or “languages of the mind” often involving visual images or analogies (John-Steiner, 1985). (boldface added)
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Choosing the Best Externalization Approach
Sketches can help people discover and solve problems and come up with improvements to inventions (Verstijnen, 1997; Meyer, 1989)Some problems are more easily solved verbally, while others are more easily solved
visually
or
mathematically (Halpern, 1989; Hayes, 1989)Choosing an impropriate externalization can impede progress in problem solvingMental visualization is useful for solving simple problems (Finke et al., 1992)Physical gesturing can assist story telling and problem solving (McNeill, 1992; Schwartz, 1995)
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Critique of Stage ModelsStage models imply a chronological sequence, but creativity often occur in a
nonlinear wayCreative stages can overlap, cycle repeatedly, or appear in
reverse
order (Sawyer, 20012)
Stages could be considered “disciplines” or “habits of mind” (Burnard el., 2006; Scott et al., 2004)27Slide28
Critique of Cognitive ApproachDoes not adequately address the social, cultural, affective
, biological, and spiritual dimensions of the creative process28