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Slide1
Research MethodsCASA Writing Center
EthnographySlide2
ethno-graphyethno = people
graphy
= writing
ethnography = writing about peopleSlide3
Defining ethnography
Slide4
What is the purpose of ethnography?
Slide5
Ethnography is...
study of a particular group - in their natural
setting
,
doing
everyday
activities, practices, processes
embedding
oneself into a culture to observe and
describe patterns
cultural interpretation (Reimer, 2011
)
cultural patterns
or processes of
a community
finding the inner workings of social settings Slide6
What is an ethnographer?
the data collection instrument (Reimer, 2011
)
gaining the "insider" perspective
translating this perspective for outsiders
"We bring our cultural selves with us wherever we go, and even with the best of intentions, an ethnographer can never see life completely through another person's eyes... the ethnographer is never able to completely write him or herself out of the ethnography" (Reimer, 2011, p. 165). Slide7
An ethnographer is...
a researcher - in and out of the
field
an observer
a participant
an interviewer
an interpreter Slide8
What is the goal?
To gain an "insider's"
perspective on a community, culture, or group of individuals
To develop a cultural
interpretation
cultural constructions, values, norms, processes, meaningsSlide9
Dogtown and Z Boys (2001)
Examples of Ethnography
Counter Culture (2009)Slide10
History of Ethnography
Foundations in anthropology, sociology, social anthropology, cultural anthropology
an interest in observing and understanding the cultur
e and processes of
"the Other"
i.e. tribal, native, or
indigenous
cultures
Ethnography has moved/moves beyond these foundations to explore cultures and communities in
all
areas of life.Slide11
Why ethnography?
As a process, ethnographic
research allows the individual to observe, interact, experience, and participate in a community or culture.
As a product, ethnographic research - or an ethnography -
translates and offers an “insider’s” perspective on the community or culture for outsiders.
This allows others to understand the community or culture more fully.
Why might this be valuable?Slide12
Research Methods
Quantitative
data can be
measured
deals with
numbers
raw data is used to construct graphs or tables
fails to capture human experience
Qualitative
data can be observed, but not
measured
explores
the experiences of
participants
descriptive data
gathers information in a non-numerical form
interviews, diary accounts, open-ended questionnaires, observations
Slide13
Research Methods
Ethnographic research methods include both quantitative and qualitative research.
quantitative: survey data, background research
qualitative: observations,
field notes, interviews
, interactions, reflectionsSlide14
Research Question Before beginning any research project, it is important to consider what you are researching and why.
What is your research question?
Please refer to your instructor’s assignment guidelines and/or develop your own research question as necessary. Slide15
Ethical Considerations “The need to protect research participants is so critical that all ethnographers, even students conducting ethnographic research for a class, must abide by this code of conduct” (Reimer, 2011, p. 171). Slide16
Code of ConductPlease ask your professor or the Institutional Review Board (IRB) for more information regarding ethical considerations in ethnographic research.
Code of Conduct, American Anthropological Association (1998)
Your ethnographic research should not:
Harm or exploit its participants
Your ethnographic research should:
Seek informed consent from participants
Respect the anonymity or recognition of participantsSlide17
What are ethnographic research methods?
“ethnographic reconnaissance” (
W
olcott, 2008, p. 187).
f
ieldwork – researcher in “the field”
r
esearcher as data instrument
o
bservation of community
data collection
Compose
fieldnotes
through observation.
Revise and add to
fieldnotes
through reflection.
Conduct interviews (informal or structured) and/or surveys with members of the community or group.
Collect site documents and/or representative artifacts of the community or group.
data analysis
r
eport writingSlide18
"Ethnographic Reconnaissance"
reconnaissance: a mission to survey, explore, and obtain
information
exploration of a community or field site to orient
oneself
Visit your site and check it out – it’s okay to feel like an outsider!
Wolcott
(2008) argues that it allows the researcher "to make a better-informed decision as to whether or how to proceed with more thorough investigation" (p. 188). Slide19
Fieldwork
"the field" is the natural setting of the community or culture being observed
For example, if researching the community of regular diners at a cafe, one would observe this community at the cafe.
Give yourself time to observe.
It is best to return to "the field" as often as possible to gain an insider's perspective on the community and its processes, practices, and/or values.
Fieldwork cannot be rushed.
Don’t procrastinate!
"Certainly, the more time available for fieldwork the better" (Wolcott, 2008, p. 190). Slide20
Researcher - Ethnographer
Ethnographer as the data instrument
Using your own experiences, observations, and perceptions to observe and take note of a community or culture
In addition to observation and interviews, ethnographers conduct outside research to learn more about the community or culture they are researching.
This helps them in the field and also in writing their ethnographic reports. Slide21
Observation
This takes time!
Be sure to seek permission to observe a community.
Prepare a statement of purpose to explain your reasons for being there.
Return to your field site as often and as many times as possible.
This will depend on the time you have available to conduct your own ethnographic research. Slide22
Types of Observation
Participant Observation
The researcher becomes an active participant in the community while observing.
Experiential observation
Non-Participant Observation
The passive observer
"fly on the wall"
The researcher does not become an active participant in the community.
Focus on observation only - no interaction Slide23
Observation as Experience
"
Participant observation is founded on firsthand experience in naturally occurring events" (Wolcott, 2004, p. 49).
Using all five senses to observe, experience, and absorb
.
Documenting these observations in field notes. Slide24
Data Collection - Field notes
Keep a notebook with you to take notes and/or make sketches.
Outsider perspective / insider perspective
Each time you sit down to observe, date your notes.
Some things you could consider are:
Observe WHO is present – what are their roles?
WHAT they are doing?
WHY are they doing this?
Consider the focus and purpose of your research. Slide25
Writing Field Notes “As quickly as possible, write up notes about what you learn, including first impressions, problems you anticipate, leads you might follow, analytical concepts you may later want to consider. Keep track as well of your emotional responses and information gained through
all
your senses, not just what you have ‘seen’” (Wolcott, 2008, p. 193). Slide26
Field Notes – What to write?First impressionsInformation gained through all your sensesProblems you anticipate
Leads or interests you might follow
Analytical concepts
i.e. discourse community theory
Emotional responses
(Wolcott, 2008) Slide27
Interviews
Seeking permission – informed consent
Using a recording
device
Interviews – sitting down face-to-face with an individual to discuss questions
Formal – structured Q&A
Informal – more like a conversation
Guided by prepared questions, but flexible to discuss responses of interviewee(s)Slide28
SurveysSurveys – developing questions for participants to respond to and return to the researcherAllow for a larger response population
Can offer numerical data and open-ended responsesSlide29
Collecting Site Documents
How are people communicating?
How is information gathered and/or shared?
Genres – newsletters, memos, forms
Media – images, web sources, videos
“…texts… are reflections of shared practice, societal norms, and public relationships, [and] they are potentially rich sources of data” (Reimer, 2011, p. 168). Slide30
Data Analysis
You will analyze the data you have collected according to the focus of your research.
Return to your Research Question. Slide31
Report Writing
Abstract
Introduction
Background – Review of the Literature
Informing your reader about the community or culture, its history, its construction, its importance, etc.
Methods
Discussing your methods of ethnographic research
Results
Analyzing the results
Using the data you collected in your observations, interviews, site documents, etc.
Discussion Slide32
How do I do ethnography?
Select a community or group of individuals that you will study.
Develop a focus or question for your study.
i.e. What are the goals and characteristics of this discourse community?
Set up a time to observe your community.
It is best to return to your field of study numerous times.
Compose thorough field notes and return to reflect on them often.
Interact with individuals within the community.
Seek interviews or distribute surveys.
Organize your findings
.
Analyze your findings.Slide33
Ethnography activity - Step 1
Imagine you are asked to conduct ethnographic research to learn more about the goals and values of college freshmen.
Create five (5) interview questions you could ask an "insider" of this community. Slide34
Ethnography Activity - Step 2
Using the five (5) interview questions you created, travel to another table and interview an individual.
Be sure to take notes on their responses. Slide35
Ethnography ModelsIf you’d like to look at some examples of ethnographic research and reports, see the Writing About Writing
textbook:
Mirabelli
, T. “Learning to serve: The language and literacy of food
s
ervice
w
orkers” (p. 538)
McCarthy, L. P. “A stranger in strange
l
ands: A college
s
tudent writing across the curriculum” (p. 667)
Branick
, S. “Coaches can read, too: An ethnographic study of a football coaching discourse community” (p. 557)Slide36
References
American Anthropological Association. (1998). Code of ethics of the American
Anthropological Association. Retrieved from
http
://www.aaanet.org/committees/ethics/ethcode.htm
Reimer
, J. F. (2011). Ethnography research. In S. D. Lapan, M. T. Quartaroli, &
F
. J. Reimer (Eds.),
Qualitative research: An introduction to methods
and
designs
(pp. 163-188). Hoboken, NJ: Jossey Bass.
Wolcott, H. F. (2008).
Ethnography as a way of seeing
, 2nd ed. New York,
NY
:
Alta
Mira Press.
Whitehead, T. L. (2004). What is ethnography? Methodological, ontological,
and
epistemological
attributes.
Cultural Ecology of Health and Change
(
CEHC)
. Retrieved from http://
www.cusag.umd.edu/documents/
WorkingPapers/EpiOntAttrib.pdf