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This article was downloaded by: [University of Bath]On: 06 April 2013, At: 14:43Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registeredoffice: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Sport in Society: Cultures, Commerce,Media, PoliticsPublication details, including instructions for authors andsubscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/fcss20 Chancing your arm: the meaning of riskin rock climbingAmanda West a & Linda Allin ba School of Humanities, University of Cumbria, Lancaster, UKb Division of Sport Sciences, University of Northumbria, UKVersion of record first published: 10 Sep 2010. To cite this article: Amanda West & Linda Allin (2010): Chancing your arm: the meaning of risk inrock climbing, Sport in Society: Cultures, Commerce, Media, Politics, 13:7-8, 1234-1248To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17430431003780245 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Anysubstantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representationthat the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of anyinstructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primarysources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings,demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly orindirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Chancingyourarm:themeaningofriskinrockclimbingAmandaWest*andLindaAllinSchoolofHumanities,UniversityofCumbria,Lancaster,UK;DivisionofSportSciences,UniversityofNorthumbria,UKThispaperexplorestherelationshipbetweenrisk-takingandriskmanagementby *Correspondingauthor.Email:amanda.west@sunderland.ac.ukSportinSocietyVol.13,No.7/8,September–October2010,1234–1248 lifestylesports.Thisviewisalsoechoedinmanypsychologicalstudiesthathavesoughttoestablisharelationshipbetweenanindividual’spropensityforrisk-takingandlifestyle-sportparticipation.However,theassumptionthatparticipantsengageinlifestylesportstosatisfyanintrinsicneedtotakeriskshasbeenchallenged.Otherresearchhasdemonstratedthatsituationalandexternalfactorsplayamoreimportantrolethanpersonalitytraitsinexplaininglifestyle-sportparticipation.Forexample,themotivationforlifestyle-sportparticipationhasbeenlinkedtofriendshipandself-efcacy,aswellaspreviouslevelsandfrequencyofexperience.Situational-focusedresearchhasalsoquestionedthereceivedwisdomthatparticipantsperceivelifestylesportsasrisky.Forexample,SlangerandRudestamnotefromlifestyle-sportparticipants’responsesonanumberofinventories,includingSensation-SeekingandSelf-Efcacy,thatparticipantssoughtchallengesnotrisksperseMoreover,theauthorscitedbyWheatontosupportherclaimthatlifestyle-sportparticipantsembraceandevenfetishizeriskoftenthemselvespresentcontradictoryarguments.Forexample,Strangerarguesthatsurngisa‘cultureorientedtowardrisk-taking’yethealsostatesthatitdoesnothaveahighfatalityrateorhighratesofseriousinjury.Surngisa‘risk-takingleisureactivity’becauseitispursued‘primarilyforthethrillsinvolved–aquestthattypicallyentailscriticallevelsofrisk’.Inanearlieraccount,Lewissuggeststhatclimbingisapotentiallyriskyactivitybecauseofthehighconsequenceoffailurebutinsodoinghepayslittleattentiontoclimbers’subjectiveexperienceofrisk.Robinsonmaintainsthatclimbersperceiveriskindifferentways,andthatratherthantakingriskstheyareoftenatpainstominimizethem.Shecontraststhisattitudewiththemediarepresentationofclimbersas‘thrill-seekersengaginginarisky,evencrazy,leisurepursuits’.Heywoodsimilarlytempersclaimsabouttheextenttowhichclimbersembracerisk-taking.Inhisessayaboutclimbingasananti-rationalistpractice,hesummarizesclimbersapproachtorisk-takinginclimbingas:‘raw,mediumorwelldoneaccordingtohowtheyfeelorwhattheywantfromthesport’.Inalateressay,hestatesthat‘thecourtingofriskinclimbing...isnotsimplyfoolhardy....highriskclimbinginvolvesexactingphysicalandmentalpreparation,considerableknowledge,andacarefulcalculationoftheodds’.Olivieralsopresentsanumberofapparentlycontradictorystatementsinhisreectiononthemoralityofparticipationinwhatheterms‘dangerous’leisureactivitiesincludingsoloclimbing,andbig-wavesurng.Hedescribestheseactivitiesasattheextremeendofsports,notjustbecauseoftheenvironmental,physicalandmentalchallengetheyposebutbecauseofthe‘unpredictabilityinherentintheseactivities’.Forexample,hecitesloosehandholdsinsoloclimbingoraroguewaveinsurng.YetOlivierrecognizesthatparticipantsdonotundertakesuchactivitieswithouthaving‘assessedtherisk,consideredtheconsequences(bothpositiveandnegative,tothemselvesandothers),andhavedecidedtocontinuewiththeirattempts’.However,hedoesnotdrawonthesubjectiveaccountsofparticipantstosubstantiatehiscontention,ratherhecitesanumberofpsychologicallyfocusedstudies.Atoneandthesametime,theliteraturecharacterizeslifestylesportsasriskyandinvitingrisk-taking,yetsomewritersacknowledgethatparticipantsseektomanagerisk.Inthisstudy,weintendtoexplorethisrelationship;thatis,betweenrisk-takingandriskmanagementbyexploringthemeaningsattachedtoriskbyaspecicgroupofso-calledlifestyle-sportparticipants.WeuseempiricalevidencegainedthroughinterviewswithrockclimbersbasedintheUnitedKingdomtosuggestthatthewaytheseclimbersconstructriskinrelationtotheirclimbingparticipationisintimatelyrelatedtolivingina‘risksociety’,withitsemphasisonself-monitoring,andriskmanagement.SportinSociety Tosupportouranalysis,wedrawonbroaderdiscoursesaboutriskarticulatedbyBeckandGiddensinrelationtoself-reexivity.WealsodrawonDouglas’sworkontheculturalroleofriskanditssubsequentrelationshiptoidentity.Tothisend,weattempttoexploretherelationshipbetweenriskmanagementinrockclimbingandriskmanagementincontemporarywesternsociety.Weseektounderstandriskassomethingakinto‘anobduraterealitylyingbeyondhistorical,culturalandsocialprocesses’.Weexplorethetensionthatsurroundsparticipationinaso-calledirrationalactivity(involvingdeliberateexposuretorisk,chanceandharm)whichdeesthe‘routinesofordinarylife’,yetreectstwenty-rstcenturydiscoursesofriskmanagementandcontrol.BeckandGiddens’sanalysesofriskhaveprovedinuentialintheorizingriskincontemporarywesternsociety.Bothseeriskculture,thatis,aheightenedawarenessofriskandtheassociatedneedtomanagerisk,asakeyfeatureoflateorhighmodernity.WhatisparticularlyhelpfulaboutBeckandGiddens’sanalysesofriskarethattheyextendtheirfocusbeyondhigh-consequencerisks,tothemanagementofriskineverydaylife.Intheirview,becauseexpertortraditionalknowledgesystems(thatonceexistedasreferencepointsfordecisionsaboutbehaviour,forexample,socialclassandgender)havebrokendown,riskmanagement,self-monitoringandtheneedtoactreexivelyisnowsomethingwhichaffectspeople’severydayandlifestylechoices.Everyactionrequiresadecisionandeverydecisionbringswithitrisks,bothphysicalandemotional.Hence,riskmanagementbecomesadailyeventbolsteredbyneo-liberaldiscourseswhichdiscouragerelianceoninstitutionalorstatesupportandwhichencourageindividualstoassumeresponsibilityfortheiractions.BeckandGiddens’sworkontheideaofarisksocietyhasbeenveryinuential.Beck’sdiscussionabouttechnologicalandenvironmentalrisks,togetherwithGiddens’sdiscussionofreexivemodernityandself-reexivity,withanattendantneedtoreexivelymanageandnegotiaterisks,resonatethroughagreatdealofacademicliterature.Theirworkcapturedamoodandexpressedagrowingsenseofuncertaintyandlossofoncesecurereferencepoints.Moreover,thereisrecognitionintheacademicliteratureofthesignicanceoftheculturalimportanceofriskasanorganizingprincipleinsociety.Whilsttheirideashavebeenextremelyinuential,theyarenotwithoutcriticism.AnumberofwritershavecriticizedBeckandGiddensforfailingtogroundtheiranalysesinnothingmorethanaveryloosehistoricaltime-frame.Morerecently,somewriters,notablythosefromwhatLuptondenesasasocio-culturaltradition,havechallengedtheveryconceptofarisksociety.Lash,inparticular,takesissuewiththeideaofarisksociety,suggestingthatitprivilegesageneralizedsenseofriskoverthemorelocal,contextandepoch-specicunderstandingsofrisk.ForLashthishasledtoafailuretoattendtomarginal,whatheterms,‘thirdspace’groupswhichoccupyplacesbetweentheprivateandpublicspheres.Suchgroups,heargues,areinuencedlessbyinstitutionalandorganizationalregulationwhereriskmanifestsitselfcognitively,andaffectedmoreby‘aestheticreexivity’whichisasmuchaboutcollectiveidentityasitisindividualreexivity.Donnellyadoptsasimilarapproachwhenwritingaboutsport.Hedenesriskcultureassomethingthatisintegraltomanysports,includinglifestylesportssuchasrockclimbing.ForDonnelly,acultureofriskmaybecelebrated,embracedandembeddedinasportand,indeed,centraltoparticipants’identity.Fromasimilarsocio-culturalstance,butmuchearlierworkaboutrisk,MaryDouglasexaminestheculturalsignicanceofriskinsomedetailandinsodoingshehighlightstheculturallymediatedandconstructednatureofrisk.Intherstinstance,shedrawsattentiontotheweaknessesinso-calledrational(cognitivescientic)accountsofriskandriskmanagement.Thelatter,shebelieves,over-emphasizetheextenttowhichrisk-takingA.WestandL.Allin isaconsequenceofrationaldecision-making(acriticismwhichcanbeusefullyappliedtosomeriskysportliterature).Inheranalysisoftherelationshipbetweencultureandrisk,Douglasnotesthatnotallrisksareweighedequally;someareseenasmoreacceptablethanotherspointingtothesociallyandculturallymediatednatureofrisk.Insodoing,sheteasesouttherelationshipbetweenrisk-takingandidentityconstruction.Inparticular,shehighlightsthesignicanceofriskformaintainingandsustainingcommunityorgroupboundaries.Sheproposesthatrisk-takingandriskperceptionareinextricablylinkedtotheprocessbywhichin-groupsdifferentiatethemselvesfromout-groups.Inthisway,themeaningsattachedtoriskhelptomarkan‘us’anda‘them’;constitutingaprocessof‘othering’.ThisprocessismuchinevidenceintwostudiesaboutyoungpeopleintheUK.Reportingdatacollectedviain-depthinterviewswithyoungsinglemothersandmaleyouths,Mitchelletal.arguethatitisimpossibletoseparateaspectsofriskinyoungpeople’slivesfromwidersocialandculturaldiscoursesaboutriskwhichimpingeontheiridentity,forexampleasbeing‘atrisk’inthecaseofsinglemothersora‘risk-taker’inrelationtoyoungmen.Theauthorscallforrisktobeunderstoodintermsofyoungpeople’ssubjectiveexperiencesandthe‘widersocial,ideologicalandeconomiccontextwithinwhichtheseyoungpeopleliveandinteract’.Lash,amongstothershascriticizedDouglas’sworkforitsfunctionalism,butherworkishelpfulforthisstudybecauseitprovidesaframeworkbywhichtoexaminetherelationshipbetweenriskandidentityandnotablytheformationofinsiderandoutsidergroups.Giventheimportanceofsportasaculturalpracticeincontemporarywesternsociety,itissomewhatsurprisingthatsofewauthorshavepaidattentiontoMaryDouglas’sworkontheculturalandsymbolicaspectsofrisktoinformtheiranalysis.Littleclimbing-relatedworkdrawsexplicitattentiontotheprocessbywhichparticipantsattachmeaningstoriskintheirsportsthroughidentityconstruction,althoughthereareoneortwoexceptions.DonnellyandYoung,forexample,suggestthattheprocessofidentityconstructioninrockclimbinginvolvesnoviceclimbersattemptingroutestoprovethemselvescapableandthereforea‘climber’toestablishedclimbers.Theclimbsundertakenbynoviceclimbersseemedriskytothem,andhavingfacedtheriskandcompletedtheroutesuccessfullyhelpednoviceparticipantstoestablishtheirclimbingidentity.DeLeseleucetal.endorseDonnellyandYoung’sclaimthatidentityisforgedthroughfacingriskaspartoftheirethnographicaccountofaclimbingcommunityatacraginFrance.Heretoo,noviceclimberssoughttoestablishtheirclimbingidentitybyconfrontingtherisksinvolvedinclimbingaroutesetforthembymoreexperiencedclimbers.Thispaperseekstodevelopthisbroadlineofanalysis,thatis,therelationshipbetweenidentityformationandclimbers’constructionofrisk,aswellasexploringthemeaningsthatclimbersattachtoriskmoregenerally.MethodToresearchclimbers’constructionsofrisk,welocatedindividualswho‘identiedthemselvesasclimbers’.Thiswasimportantinthat,whilst5%oftheUKpopulationhaswewantedtoexploretheviewsofthosewhoself-identiedasclimbersratherthanpeoplewhoclimbed;inotherwords,thoseforwhomclimbingwasapartoftheiridentityandhenceanimportantpartoftheirlives.Thisisconsistentwiththedenitionofrockclimbingasalifestylesportusedinthispaper.Byadoptingthissampledenition,wewouldbeabletoexplorethenotionofriskandthemeaningsparticipantsattachedtorisk,ingreaterdepth.Welocatedpotentialparticipantsviaapurposivesample,throughinformalacquaintances,postingadvertisementsatclimbingwallsandviaapopularUKinternetSportinSociety climbingwebsite.Wehadmorevolunteersforoursamplethanwecouldinterviewandthereforeoncewehadidentiedequalnumbersofmaleandfemaleclimbersandwereassuredofawideage-rangewechosetointerviewvolunteerswhoarticulatedaclimbingidentitybyreferencetotheimportancetheyplacedontheirparticipation.Thiswasnotnecessarilyintermsoffrequencyofparticipation,forsomehadretiredfromclimbing,butratherintermsofthesignicancetheyattachedtoclimbingrelativetootheridentitiesintheirlives.Wenotedthatintermsofaccessingparticipants,itwasmoredifculttoaccessyoungfemaleclimbers.Wespeculatedthatthismightbeforanumberofreasons.First,thismayberelatedbothtothefactthattherearemoremaleclimbersthanfemaleclimbers.deningoursampleaspeoplewhoidentiedthemselvesasclimbersmaymilitateagainstwomen’sinclusion,asmenmaynditeasierthanwomentoexpressaclimbingidentity.Thiscouldbebecauseaclimbingidentitybringswithitconnotationsofphysicalityandmasculinitywhichmaybemorepositiveformenthanwomen.Itmightalsobebecausewomentypicallyembracemultipleidentitiesasaconsequenceoftheirgreaternumberofrolesandresponsibilitiesintheireverydaylifewhichmakestheirself-identicationwithsportleisuremorecomplex.Thenalsampleforthispapercomprised22climbers,12menand10women,agedfrom20–78years.Theirlengthofclimbingexperiencerangedfrom2–57years.Threeolderclimbers(onemaleandtwofemale)nolongerclimbedbutexpressedverystrongclimbingidentitiesduringourearlydiscussions,supportedbytheclimbingliteraturewhichsubstantiatedtheirclimbingexperiences.Consequently,wetookthedecisiontoincludetheseparticipantstoensurethatoursamplewasnotrestrictedtorelativelyyoungparticipantsbutacknowledgedtheexperiencesofamorediversegroupofclimbers.Inaccordancewithstandardethicalprocedures,weaskedparticipantsfortheirinformedconsentandprovidedcontactdetailsshouldtheywishtoclarifyanyissuesabouttheprojectortoviewndings.Wecollectedthedataviain-depthinterviewsorganizedaroundaseriesofthemesincludingthenotionofriskingeneral,theirearlyexperiencesofbeingphysicallyactive,aswellastheirinvolvementinclimbingandhowtheysawriskinclimbingterms.Participantswerealsoaskedtoreectontheirexperiencesandtodescribehow,ifatall,theirapproachtoriskinclimbinghadchangedovertime.Theinterviewwassupplementedbyashortquestionnairewhichgaveusbackgrounddetailsofindividualclimbersincludingdemographicinformationsuchasageofintroductiontoclimbing,routesclimbed,highestleadgrade,typeofclimbingandnumberoftimesclimbedoutdoorsinthepastyear.Pilotinterviews,followedbythemainprojectinterviews,wereconductedduringthespringandsummermonthsintheUnitedKingdom(coincidingwiththepeakclimbingperiod).Adigitalrecordingdevicewasusedtorecordtheinterviewsandtheseweresubsequentlytranscribedverbatim.Asfemalequalitativeresearchers,wewerenotcomfortablewiththetraditionalmasculinistviewofaninterviewasdepersonalizeddatagathering.Rather,wewereawarethatinterviewingisacomplexinterpretiveprocessandthatoursubjectpositions,aswellasourpersonalexperiencesofandattitudetowardrisk,undoubtedlyshapedtheinterviewer–intervieweerelationshipsweformedandthenarrativewepresenthere.Weweretwowhite,middle-class,‘forty-something’femaleacademicswithexperienceoftheoutdoorenvironment(asfell-walkerandkayaker)butlessfamiliaritywithrockclimbing.Wesharedsimilarsubjectpositionsintermsofethnicityandclasstothoseweinterviewed,butheldourownattitudestoriskborneofexperience(havingbeeninourown‘risky’situationsintheoutdoors)andthroughourengagementwithbroaderacademicdiscoursesaboutriskA.WestandL.Allin intheliterature.Thismayhaveinuencedthewayinwhichparticipantsinthisstudytalkedwithusabouttheirunderstandingofrisk.Weperceivedthatweestablishedrapportmoreeasilywiththemiddle-agedandolderclimbersthanwithyoungerclimbersregardlessofgender.Thiswasreectedinthelongerlengthoftheinterviewsandtheeasewithwhichwefeltweobtaineddetailedresponsestoourquestionsandwereabletoidentifywiththeirexperiences.Wealsofoundwewerenotonthereceivingendoftalesofdaringdeedsontherockfacefromeithermaleorfemaleclimbers,thoughwemighthaveexpectedmaleclimberstohavebeeneagertodemonstratetheirmasculinitytousthroughsuchtalesofrisk-taking.Whentheintervieweesrecalledtheirclimbingexperiencestheydidsoinamorereectiveway,inanefforttomakesenseofrisk.Thismaybelinkedtooursubjectpositionasfemaleacademicsasopposedtoclimbingpeers,withwhomintervieweesmayhavefeltmoreofaneedtoestablishtheirstatuspositionasclimbers.Ourexperiencesreectedtheverycomplexdynamicsthatcanplayoutbetweeninterviewersandinterviewees,andthewayinwhichdifferentsubjectpositionscancometotheforeatdifferenttimesintheinterviewsituation.Perhapsourstatusas‘academicswhowereknowledgeableaboutriskintheoutdoors’resonatedlouderthanourstatusasinexperiencedclimbersoraswomen.However,wefeelthenarrativesreectedareectiononriskasopposedtotalesofrisk-takingtoimpressanaudience.Throughouttheinterviewingperiodandsubsequenttranscriptionwe,asresearchers,maintainedcontactwitheachothertodiscussemergentthemesduringthedatacollectionphaseandtosituatetheideasinrelationtothelifestyle-sportliterature.Indoingso,weacknowledgedboththearticialityofseparatingthedifferentphasesoftheresearchprojectandthesignicanceofourselvesasresearchersintheinterpretationandconstructionoftheresearchndings.Analysingourquestionnairesshowedthatallclimbersundertookmainlyleadclimbing,withtwoyoungerfemaleclimbersindicatingthatthey‘seconded’asoftenastheyledclimbs.Allclimbersclimbedmainly‘trad’or‘traditional’routes,thatis,routeswheretheclimberputsintheirownprotection,typicallyusingropes,karabinersandslingsormetalnutstoattachthemselvestotherockastheyclimb.Threeintervieweesexplicitlyindicatedthattheyalso‘bouldered’,thatis,climbedwithoutropesoverlargebouldersonthegroundoraroundlowerpartsofacrag.Inordertomakesenseofourqualitativedata,webeganaprocessofcodingtheinterviewsbyreadingthroughthetranscriptsandselectingkeyquotesthatrelatedtoourinterestsinparticipants’perceptionsofriskinclimbing.Weprovideddescriptivelabelsforquotesthatcontainedsimilarmeaning,usingaprocessofconstantcomparisontocompareandcontrastquotes.Wemovedfromdescriptivelabelstobroader,moreanalyticalthemes,forexample,inexploringriskinclimbing,whenparticipantsidentiedleadclimbing,orsoloingas‘risky’,thesewereamalgamatedinto‘perceived“risky”climbingsituations’.Subsequently,theybecamepartofalargercategoryof‘climbingrisks’.Thendingswepresenthereshouldbeconsideredasarisingfromtheaboveresearchprocessandrelatingtotheparticularclimbersinterviewed.Climbers’nameshavebeenchangedinordertoprotecttheiridentities.DiscussionRiskasamotivationforclimbingParticipantsinthisstudydescribedclimbingasavoluntaryrisk-takingactivity;onetheyhadchosenbecauseoftheopportunitytoselectadegreeofexposuretoriskormoreSportinSociety importantlytheamountofcontroltheycouldexertwhenclimbing.Thisgroupofclimbersdidnotexpressaneedtoescapefromthemundaneexperienceofeveryday(urban)livingassuggested,noradesiretofreethemselvesfromincreasingsocietalrationalization.Rather,theycontrastedtheirabilitytocontrolriskwhenclimbingwiththeout-of-controlrisksineverydaylife,suchascrime,trafcaccidentsandillness.AsMikeexplained:‘butIthinkit’sacontrolthingtheriskinclimbing,youareabletocontroltheriskandtherisksinlifeIalwaysfeelare[pause]outofcontrol’(Mike,60yearsold).ThesedataareconsistentwithHeywood’saccountofrockclimbingwherehesuggestedthatriskcanbe‘raw,mediumorwelldone’.Morebroadly,theimportancetheseclimbersattachedtotheirabilitytoexercisecontrolandrelatedly,tochoice,inthecontextofrisk-takingisconsistentwithGiddensclaimsaboutamovetoincreasingself-reexivityandself-monitoringinrelationtoadiversityoflifestyleoptions.However,Laurendeauhasproposedthatcontrolispotentiallyillusory.Throughhisethnographicresearchaboutskydiving,Laurendeauconcludedthatskydiversattempttomaintaintheillusionofcontrolevenwhencontrolisobviouslylacking.Theydothisbypresentingoneoftwonarratives.Therstisthroughblamingthevictim,referringtoerrorsinskydivingpracticeasopposedtoanyinherentriskintheactivityitself.Thesecondisbyreferencetofateassomethingoverwhichthereisnocontrol.Thesenarrativesmakeitpossibleforskydiverstomaintainanunderlyingsenseofcontrolandconcomitantly,theiridentityasaskydiver.Themulti-dimensionalnatureofriskinclimbingWhenaskedtodeneriskinclimbingtermstheintervieweesvariouslymentionedthechanceofhurtingoneself,breakingbonesordeath–principallyphysicalrisks.Someparticipantsreferredtoparticularformsofclimbingthatwere‘risky’inthissense.Forexample,‘hard’routes,routeswithoutprotection,multi-pitchclimbing,climbingwheretherewerelongrun-outs(riskofalongfall),andsoloing(climbingwithoutarope)wereconstructedasparticularly‘risky’.Inthisstudy,climbers’constructionsofriskmirroreddominantassumptionsofaninherentriskinclimbinglinkedtophysicalharm,andconsistentwiththediscoursesaboutriskpresentedinsomeofthelifestyle-sportliterature.Olderclimbersmadespecicmentionofaneedtomanageriskmorecarefullyforfearofinjury.Insomecasesthiswasbecausetheyhadsufferedafallandbeenbadlyinjured,forothersitwasbecausetheyrecognizedthatolderbodiestakealongertimetohealandthereforemightpreventthemclimbing.Theseclimbersreportedaheightenedsenseofphysicalrisktotheirbodieswhichinturninuencedtheirrisk-taking.Thisgroupofclimbersseemedmoreawareofthefrailtyofthematerialbody,andthereforethepotentialrisktotheirclimbingidentitiesseemedgreaterandconsequentlyrequiredgreaterreexivity,monitoringandmanagement.Wesuggestthattheeffectofageingonlifestyle-sportparticipationingeneralisunder-exploredintheliteratureandisanareathatwarrantsfurtherattention.Although,aswehaveshown,severalparticipantsinthisstudywereawareofthepresenceofphysicalrisks,thiswasnotthefocusoftheirattentionwhenclimbing.Inotherwords,awarenessofriskwasnotpresentatallpointsintime.Markexplained:Youconstructitinyourmindassafe,oryou’rewillingtotaketheriskandyouacceptthatandthenyoujustconcentrateontheroute,becauseyoucan’tbe...onsomeirreversible...thensuddenlythinkohIdon’twanttobehere.(Mark,24yearsold)Mark’scommentimpliesthatsomeclimbersmayndawayofreconceptualizingriskduetotheinherentdangersoftheactivity,sothatitisacceptedandthenpushedtothebackofone’smind.Thismightbebecausethinkingaboutariskwouldbreakone’sconcentrationandtheA.WestandL.Allin focusrequiredtocompletearoute.Markappearstobesuggestingthatthepointatwhichone’sconcentrationisbrokenisatacruxmovewheretheclimbercannotreversethemoveeasily.Lois’sworkonemotionalriskinvolunteersearch-and-rescueorganizationprovidesahelpfulframeworkbywhichtoexplorethetemporaldimensionassociatedwithpotentiallyriskysituationssuchasthatdescribedbyMark.Loiscontendsthat,inordertofocusonthetaskinhand,rescuersmanagetheiremotionalresponsestoriskdifferentlydependingonthestageoftherescue,forexample,preparation,performanceandreection.Intheperformancephase,rescuerssuppressedtheiremotionalconcernsaboutrisksothattheycouldbemoreeffectiveandthesafetyofthemissionwouldnotbecompromised.Inadditiontophysicalharm,therewasawarenessbysomeclimbersinthisstudyregardingthesocialandemotionalrisksinclimbing.Sarah(60yearsold)referredtothefailuretocompleteaclimbasarisktoone’sself-esteem,inthat‘youfeeldisappointedwhenyoufail’.WhilstMikecommented:‘causeifitlooksimpossibleIwon’tbother’causeIactuallywanttodoitforfun’causeIlikethesenseofachievement.RiskformealsoinvolvesIdon’twanttoIwanttoachieveitdon’twanttofailsoI’mthatsortofperson.(Mike,53yearsold)Loissuggeststhatwomenaremorelikelythanmentoacknowledgeemotionalrisksand,thoughthiswassupportedbyourdata,Mike’scommentsillustratethatmenarenotimmunefromsuchrisks.Theimplicationsofariskofdisappointmenttoselforotherscanalsohaveconsequencesforclimberswhodonotwanttoturnbackfromadifcultascent.Speakingfrompersonalexperience,Jane(68yearsold)thoughtthisespeciallyproblematicforinformalgroupleaders,asopposedtoaformallynominatedinstructor.Sheexplained,‘ifyou’retakingapartyoutIthinkit’sverydifculttosay“it’stoobad,we’renotgoing”,isn’tit?’ThesecommentssupportGiddens’sassertionthatinlatemodernity,wheretheanchorsthatgroundidentityareincreasinglyinsecure,eachdecisionconstitutesapotentialriskthatindividualsself-reexivelymanage.Risk-takinginclimbingthereforecannotbedivorcedfromtheprocessofriskmanagementinsocietymoregenerally,where‘Whattodo?Howtoact?Whattobe?’becomequestionsthat‘allofusanswer,eitherdiscursivelyorinourdaytodaybehaviour’.Someclimbersalsoalludedtosocialrisksassociatedwithclimbing,notablytheriskposedtoothersbytheiractions.Someinterviewees,notablyolderclimbers,talkedabouthowincreasingfamilycommitmentshadaffectedtheirapproachtorisk.Inresponsetothesecommitments,theyexplainedthattheydidnotclimbsuchexposedorriskyroutesastheyhadoncedone.Aminorityofclimbers,however,indicatedthatfamilycommitmentshadnoimpactontheroutestheyattemptedorthewaytheyclimbed.Thosewhosuggestedthisdidacknowledgethatthereshouldhavebeensomeeffect.Inotherwords,theyreectedthattheyprobablyshouldhavealteredtheirapproachtoriskandclimbingoncetheirpersonalcircumstanceschanged.Donnellycommentsonthegenderednatureofresponsibility,highlightingthedifferentialtreatmentaccordedAlisonHargreavesandRobHall,mountaineerswhosedeathseachlefttheirpartnerasingleparent.TherewassomeevidencetosupportDonnelly’sclaimsaboutthegenderednatureofresponsibilityinourinterviews.Whilstbothmaleandfemaleclimbersindicatedthatfamilyresponsibilitiesalteredtheirclimbingpractices,menreportedbeinglesslikelythanwomentorestricttheirclimbingpractices.Whilstphysicalriskisthemostovertandvisibleformofrisktoclimbers,ourresearchsuggestedthatthereisalsoaneedtotakemoreaccountofemotionalandsocialrisksthatareinvolved,andtheirimplications.SportinSociety Risk,identityandclimbingpracticesAlthoughtheintervieweesacknowledgedtheexistenceofriskinclimbing,therewaslimitedevidenceinourinterviewsthattheyembracedrisk,assuggestedinsomelifestylesportliterature.Indeed,whenaskedhowtheyviewedthenotionof‘risk’inclimbing,manyintervieweesexplainedthattheydidnotviewtheirownclimbingpracticesasriskyatall(thoughmostparticipantsacknowledgedthatclimbingingeneraldidinvolverisk).ThisndingisconsistentwithPorro’sassertionthatthefocusoughttobeonriskypracticesasopposedtoriskyactivities.Onemaleclimbersaid:’Ididn’tthinkitwasriskyatthedidn’tseeitasriskythenandIdon’tnoweither(Ryan50yearsold).Theideathatclimbingwasriskybutthatindividualclimbingpracticeswerenotriskyappearedatrstglancetobecontradictory.However,theextentofthiscontradictiondiminishedoncetheanalysisbroughttotheforethenotionofidentity.Identityemergedasacentralmediatinginuencebetweenourclimbersunderstandingofriskandtheirownclimbingpractices.Crucially,thelensofidentitysignpostedapotentiallylogicalexplanationoftheparadoxicalviewsexpressedbythisgroupofclimberswheretheyrecognizedclimbingingeneralasrisky,yetperceivedtheirownclimbingpracticesasmuchlessrisky.Inthissection,wepresentanaccountofthemediatinginuenceofidentitybyreferencetothemeaningsclimbersattachedtoriskinrelationtotheirownclimbingpractices.Participantsinthisresearchcouldtypicallybedescribedasconstructingtheirclimbingpracticesintermsofmanagedrisk,adescriptionthatisconsistentwithRobinson’sdepictionofrockclimbersasriskmanagers.Oneyoungclimber,forexample,describedhispersonalclimbingpracticethus:Nowthereisadegreeofriskthatyoutakewithanyparticularclimb.Dependsontheroute,dependsontheconditionsontheday,dependsonyourself,dependsonhowcompetentorretardedyouareattheclimbing.(Mark,24yearsold)Inotherwords,thediscursivepracticeadoptedbytheseclimbershelpedtoframeriskandgivemeaningtorisk,whilstatthesametimehelpingtoproduceandsustaintheiridentityasaclimber.InDouglas’sterms,thismeansbeinglocatedasamemberofthein-groupasopposedtothe‘Other’.Mark’scommentsuggeststhatforhim,partofbeingaclimberratherthansomeonewhoclimbsislimitedtoaclimber’scompetenceandabilitytomanagerisk.Similarcommentsfromotherclimbersinthisstudyhelpustounderstandwhatkindofriskypracticesareacceptableandconsistentwithmembershipofaperceived‘in-group’,thatis,competentclimbers.Tofurtherillustratethispoint,Hilarywasadamantthatforher,climbingwasnotrisky.Shecommented:’Idon’tthinkanything[wasrisky],youhadyourprotections,youknow,youputyourslingson,andifyoucouldn’tdoit,youcamedown...thatwastheprincipleweusedtohave(Hilary,78yearsold).Hilarywasframingriskinrelationtojudgementandmakinganappropriatechoiceofroutethatenabledhertomake‘safe’descents,butinrelationtotheunderstandingofwhatconstituteda‘safe’descentforclimberslikeher.Thatis,itwasreexivelyself-managed.Reectingonhisearlyclimbingexperiencesonemaleclimbersaid:‘Iwasacockylittlesodaboutclimbing.IprobablydidsomethingsIwouldn’twanttodonow.atthetimeIthinkIwasmoreinacockysortofmindsetthanacalculatingone’(Noel,24yearsold).BothHilaryandNoel’scommentshighlighttheextenttowhichriskhelpstosustainanidentityandassuchisbothsociallyandculturallymediated.Moreover,Noel’sdescriptionofthewayhechangedfrombeing‘cocky’asabeginnerto‘calculating’withageandexperiencehintsatthecontradictorynatureoftheidentitiesofyoungmanasopposedtoA.WestandL.Allin thatofaclimber.Furtherexplorationofthesignicanceofgenderandearlyexperienceofrisk-takinginthelightofcurrentpracticearebeyondthescopeofthisstudy,butbotharedeservingofcloserattention.Thesignicanceofgoodjudgementandpreparationwasfurtherhighlightedbysomeoftheclimbersbyreferencestoindividuals‘atrisk’asbeingthosewhopicked‘ridiculous’routes,whowerebeing‘daft’:MostofthetimeIdon’tthinkitisactuallythatdangerous,Imean...uptosortofE5[climbinggradeequivalentto7bsportgradeor5.12b,USA)Ithinkit’srelativelysafemostofthetime.It’sdifferenthere[Yorkshire,gritstone],becausearoundhereyoucangettotallytrickyandunprotectedroutesthatarenotE5andyoucangetunprotectedroutesatE2[climbinggradeequivalentto6bsportor5.10b,USA]aswell,butingeneralifyoudon’tpicktheseridiculousroutestotrytodoyouarefairlysafeaslongasyou’vegottherightgear.(Steve,23yearsold)Ithinkonsinglepitchclimbingyoucanalwaysruleoutriskunlessyou’rebeingdaft.[Why’sthat?]Becausemostareasthatyoudosinglepitching,peoplegoandclimbthereallthetimeandanyloosestonesthatarehangingaroundaregone.Iguessthere’salwaystheriskofsomeoneatthetopkickingastonedownorsomething,butIthinkifyou’resensibleenoughwhenyou’redoingsinglepitchclimbing,youwon’treallycomeacrossanyrisk(Carol,22yearsold)Intheseexcerptsfromthetranscripts,climbersheredistinguishedbetween‘normal’and‘abnormal’risks.Inparticular,theyweredistinguishingbetweenaccidentsthatcouldnotbeprevented(e.g.,loosestonesfalling,orunprotectedroutes)andrisksthatwerecausedbytheactionsofaclimberdisplayingpoorjudgementeitherinhis/herchoiceofclimbs,orhavinginadequateequipmentfortheclimb,orbygoingbeyondhis/hercompetencelevels.Caroltalksaboutbeing‘sensible’ornotbeing‘daft’whilstStevementionsthatroutesarefairlysafeaslongastheyarenot‘ridiculousroutes’.ThisdataresonateswithLaurendeau’sethnographicstudyaboutskydiving.Laurendeauconcludedthatintheirattempttomaintainthe‘illusion’ofcontrol,skydiversreportedthatcontrolwasonlylostwhenparticipantssteppedoutsidesafeskydivingpractices.Whenaccidentsoccurred,fellowskydiversexaminedthejudgementsandchoicesmadebythevictimand,byidentifyingtheseaspoorpractice,wereabletodistancethemselvesandunderplaytherisksinvolved.Alternatively,asreectedintheextractcitedabove,theirnarrativesreectedadegreeoffatalism;acknowledgingrisksposedbylooserockbutacceptingthattherewaslittlethatcouldbedonetonegatesuchSomeoftheintervieweesalsocontrastedtherelativerisk-freenatureofclimbingwithotherlifestylesportswhichtheydenedasmuchmorerisky,suchasmountaineering(Dave,39yearsold)andcaving(Ryan,50yearsold),becauseofthepotentialuncontrolledeventssuchasstonefallsandavalanchesoroodingofacavesystemrespectively.Inessence,theclimbersinthisstudyconceptualizedunacceptable(abnormal)risksintermsofbeing‘stupid’or‘silly’.Inthisway,theyclimbersalsoconstructedtheboundarybetween‘good’climbers,thatis,‘sensible’andcompetentclimbersandan‘other’whowereirresponsibleclimbers,wholackedpreparationandthereforeputthemselves(andothers)atrisk.Albertdrewasimilarinferenceinanotherethnographicstudy,thistimewithroadcyclists.Whilstacknowledgingthatroadcyclistsdonotusuallyfallintothecategoryoflifestyle-sportparticipants,theriskofphysicalinjuryiseverpresentforparticipants.Albertobservedthattheroadcyclistsinhisresearchdistinguishedbetween‘normal’risks,thatis,accidentsforwhichtherewasnoobviouscause,and‘abnormal’risks,thatis,thoseSportinSociety causedbythedeliberateactionsofaskilledriderseekingtogainanadvantageoranunskilledriderdisplayingpoorridingtechniqueandjudgement.Accidentscausedbyaskilledriderwereexcused,whilstthosecausedbyanunskilledriderwerecriticizedasrashandfoolishandservedtocondemnhimtotheroleof‘outsider’or‘other’.Albert’ssuggestionthattherewassomethingacceptableaboutskilledroadcyclists’risk-takingtogainanadvantagewasalsosupportedbysomeoftheclimbersinourstudy,albeitinadifferentcontext.Risk-takingwasseenasacceptablewheretheintentionwastoimproveone’sclimbingstandardsometimesdescribedas‘pushingthegrade[atwhichoneclimbed]’.Fortheseclimbers,risk-takingwasaninevitablecorollarytopushingthegradebecausethiswasonlypossibleiftheywerepreparedtostepoutsidetheircomfortzone.Onefemaleclimbermaintained:‘Yeah,Ithinktopushyourselfyouhavetotakerisks.Ithinkthat’stheonlyriskyoutake,sortofinpushingmygrade’(Carol22yearsold).Suchanattitudetoriskremainsconsistentwithadevelopingidentityasaclimber,wherebyriskisonlyentertainedinrelationtoenhancingtheirstatusasaclimberbyimprovingthegradeclimbed.KayandLabergemakethispointintheirethnographicaccountofadventureracing,arguingthatriskmanagementorcalculatedrisk-takingseemedeffectiveandnecessaryforsuccesswhilstrisk-takingwithoutforesightwasviewedasirresponsible.Theseauthorssuggestthatinthecontextofadventureracing,‘authentic’risk-takingwasframedinamasculinistway,thatisbyprivilegingtheriskstakenbymenandunderplayingthosetakenbywomen.Inthisstudy,bothmaleandfemaleclimberstalkedaboutrisk-taking.Practicesand/orexperiencesthatconstitutedanacceptableriskalsovariedwithlifeexperiencesinrelationtoboththeirclimbingpracticesandfactorsoutsideclimbing.Severalclimberstalkedabouthowthebirthofchildrenhadledtothemmakingaconsciousdecisiontoreducetheriskstheytookwhenclimbing.Anolderclimberreported:‘obviously,whenIgotmarriedandIhadafamilyIwasmuchmorecautiousthenandwhenthechildrenwereyoungIneverwentoffonaclimbingexpeditionoranything’(David,68yearsold).David’swordsillustratethewayinwhichresponsibilityforselfandothersfeaturesinhisconstructionofrisk-takinginclimbing.Thiswayofconstructingrisk-takingisechoedinndingsbyMitchelletal.inrelationtoprostituteswhowerealsomothers,andwhoframedtheirriskyidentitiesintermsofresponsiblerisk-taking.Thesewomenexplainedhowtheytookgreaterstepstomanagetherisksoftheirprofession,andusedthediscoursesofgoodmotheringtodistancethemselvesfromparticularaspectsofstreetwork.Inclimbingpractices,responsibilitytoothersinriskmanagementalsofeaturedinexampleswhereclimbersinthisstudyreferredtotheirresponsibilitiestotheirclimbingpartners,whichinuencedthetypeofroutestheywouldundertake.Forexample,Dan(20yearsold)identiedtheneedto‘thinkaboutyourpartner’suchthattheywerenotput‘atrisk’(offalling).ConclusionTheaimofthisstudywastoexplorethemeaningsattachedtoriskbyagroupofcommitted,experiencedandskilled(butnotelite)climbersbasedinthenorthofEngland.DrawingonDouglas’sandLash’sworkonriskandidentity,aswellGiddens’accountofriskmanagementinlatemodernity,interviewswith22climbersrevealedthatcontrarytolifestyle-sportliterature,thepursuitofriskwasnotasignicantinuenceontheirclimbingparticipation.However,theabilitytoselectandmanagethelevelofriskintheirclimbingpracticewasimportant.ThisndingisconsistentwithGiddens’andothers’A.WestandL.Allin accountsofself-reexivityandindividualizedriskmanagementinlatemodernityaswellasHeywood’saccountofthemotivationforclimbing.Thatis,climbersreexivelymanageriskandattempttoselectthelevelofrisktowhichtheyexposethemselves.Themeaningsattachedtoriskbythisgroupofclimberswereinthemainphysicalriskssuchasinjurycausedbyafall,butemotionalriskswerealsomentioned,intermsoffailuretocompleteaclimb.Differencesemergedbetweenolderandyoungerclimbers’approachtoriskinthisstudy,witholderclimbersbeingmorelikelytoexpressconcernaboutinjuryandprovidinglongernarrativesaboutrisk.AgainthisdataisconsistentwithGiddens’claimthatthebodyisself-reexivelymanagedinlatemodernity.However,olderandyoungerclimbers’divergentapproachestoself-reexiveriskmanagementofthebodysuggeststhatfutureworkmightbeusefullydirectedatexaminingthesignicanceofatemporaldimensiontothemeaningsattachedtoriskacknowledgingtheinuenceofbothexperienceandage.Theintervieweesreportedthat,whilstclimbingwasrisky,theirownclimbingpracticeswerenot.Inrespectofthelatter,thisgroupofclimberstalkedaboutmanagingriskandcontrollingrisk.Indeed,theycontrastedthecontrolandmanagementofriskinclimbingwithuncontrolledrisksineverydaylifesuchasillness,nancialworries,roadtrafcaccidentsandcrime.Probingthismoreclosely,itbecameapparentthatriskmanagementfortheclimbersinthisstudywasintrinsicallylinkedtotheirclimbingidentityandhelpedtodenethemasa‘good’or‘safe’aswellasacompetentclimber.DrawingonDouglas’sworkaboutriskandidentityformation,wesurmisedfromthedatathatthoseparticipantswhomanagedriskweregoodclimberswhilstthosewhoexercisedpoorjudgementaboutriskwerepoorclimbers.Inessence,inthewaytheycontrolledandmanagedriskclimbersinthisstudysecuredforthemselvesanidentityasaclimberasopposedtosomeonewhoclimbed.Theysecuredthisidentitynotsomuchbyscalinggreatroutesbutthroughdemonstrationofcompetencegainedthroughexperience.Theonlyexceptiontothisstateofaffairswaswhereclimberssteppedoutsidetheircomfortzoneinanefforttoimprove,thatis,to‘pushtheirgrade’orengageinwhatLyngcalls‘edgework’.Inthissituation,climbersseemedtomakesomeallowanceforpoorjudgementbecausetheydeemedthisanacceptablerisk.Insummary,althoughclimbersacknowledgedclimbing,thesport,asrisky,anindividualclimber’sownclimbingpracticeswerenotdenedinthisway.Ratherriskandclimbingpracticeswereframedinrelationtoattemptstocontrolandmanagerisk.Assuch,theseclimbersestablishedtheircredentialsasaclimberbydemonstratingtheircompetenceinthewaytheymanagedandcontrolledrisk.ModernityandSelf-identityRiskandBlameTomlinsonetal.,‘LifestyleSports’.Rinehart,‘EmergingArrivingsport’.Olivier,‘MoralDilemmas’.Beal,‘AlternativeMasculinity’.UnderstandingLifestyleSports,4.FinchandCassell,‘PublicHealthImpact’.UnderstandingLifestyleSports,11–12.Seeforexample,Feher,MeyersandSkelly,‘PsychologicalProle’;Freixanet,‘PersonalityProle’;Robinson,‘StressSeeking’.Shoham,RoseandKahle,‘PractitionersofRiskySports’.Creyer,RossandEvers,‘RiskyEecreation’.SlangerandRudestam,‘MotivationandDisinhibition’.UnderstandingLifestyleSportsSportinSociety Stranger,‘AestheticsofRisk’.Ibid.,267.Lewis,‘Climbingbody’.Robinson,‘TakingRisks’,120.Heywood,‘UrgentDreams’,187.Heywood,‘ClimbingMonsters’,456.Olivier,‘MoralDilemmas’,98.Ibid.,98.Seeforexample,Beck,RiskSociety;Giddens,ModernityandSelf-identityRiskandBlameMitchelletal.,‘SituatingYoungPeople’sExperiences’,220.ModernityandSelf-identity,132.See,forexample,Lash,‘ReexiveModernization’;PowellandEdwards,‘RiskandYouth’.See,forexample,Adkins,‘RiskCultureandSelf-reexivity’;Hier,‘RiskandPanic’;Ungar,‘MoralPanic’.See,forexample,ChanandRigakos,‘Risk,CrimeandGender’;Dingwall,‘RiskSociety’;Strong,‘EpidemicPsychology’.Lash,‘ReexiveModernization’.Donnelly,‘SportandRiskCulture’.RiskandBlameSee,forexample,Mitchelletal.,‘SituatingYoungPeople’sExperiences’;Mitchell,BuntonandYoungPeople,RiskandLeisureMitchelletal.,‘SituatingYoungPeople’sExperiences’,230.Lash,‘ReexiveModernization’.DonnellyandYoung,‘RockClimbersandRugbyPlayers’.deLeseleuc,GleyseandMarcellini,‘PracticeofSport’.Mintel,‘SportParticipation–UK’,May2000,http://reports.mintel.com.SocialResearchMethodsBritishMountaineeringCouncil‘EquitySurveyReport’.McDermott,’TowardaFeministUnderstanding’.Green,‘WomenDoingFriendship’.SeeOakley,‘Interviewingwomen’.InterpretiveInteractionismSee,forexample,Robinson,’TakingRisks’.See,forexample,Wheaton’sexperiencesin‘Babesonthebeach’.See,forexample,DenzinandLincoln,LandscapeofQualitativeResearch;Patton,;Silverman,DoingQualitativeResearchCorbinandStrauss,BasicsofQualitativeResearchLewis,‘ClimbingBody’.Heywood,‘UrgentDreams’.ModernityandSelf-identityLaurendeau,‘HeDidn’tGo’.Seeforexample,Creyer,RossandEvers,‘RiskyRecreation’;Lewis,‘ClimbingBody’;Olivier,‘MoralDilemmas’.Stranger,‘AestheticsofRisk’.Lois,‘GenderandEmotionManagement’.Lois‘PeaksandValleys’.ModernityandSelf-identity,70.Donnelly,‘SportandRiskCulture’.Seeforexample,LeBreton,‘PlayingSymbolicallywithDeath’;Lewis,‘Climbingbody’;Stranger,‘Aestheticsofrisk’.Porro,’Response’.Robinson,‘TakingRisks’.RiskandBlameLaurendeau,‘HeDidn’tGo’.Albert,‘DealingwithDanger’.KayandLaberge,’MandatoryEquipment’.Mitchell,BuntonandGreen,YoungPeople,RiskandLeisureA.WestandL.Allin 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