C hapter Eight Thinking, Language, and Intelligence - PowerPoint Presentation

Chapter Eight Thinking, Language, and Intelligence Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

THINKING © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

What is “Thinking”? Forming ideasDrawing conclusions Expressing thoughtsComprehending the thoughts of others Where does it occur? Distributed throughout brain Problem solving and decision making: prefrontal cortex © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Building Blocks of Thought Mental ImagePreviously stored sensory experiences: visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile, motor, or gustatory imagery LanguageForm of communication using sounds and symbols combined according to rules Concepts Mental representation of a group or category that shares similar characteristics (dog, camping, rivers) © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. How do we develop concepts? WILEY VIDEO Drive Brain Power

Three Strategies for Learning Concepts Artificial Concepts(also called formal concepts) The rules are sharply defined (square). Often used in science Hierarchies Grouping concepts as subcategories within broader concepts © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Natural Concepts/prototypes The BEST example or typical representative of that concept

Problem Solving: Three Steps to the Goal Preparation Identify factsSeparate relevant from irrelevant facts Define ultimate g oal Evaluation Evaluate the solutions generated in Step 2 to see if they match criteria—if yes, problem solved! If not, return to production stage © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Production Algorithms Logical, step-by-step procedure that will always produce a solution Heuristics A simple rule/shortcut that does not guarantee a solution but narrows alternatives

More About Heuristics Working Backward Start with the solution, which is KNOWN, and work backward through the problem. The steps are then revealed. Creating Subgoals Breaking down a large complex problem into a series of small subgoals. The subgoals are stepping stones to the larger goal. © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Means-end Analysis The problem solver determines what would reduce the difference between what the state is NOW and the GOAL.

Using Different Problem-Solving Techniques Your car has broken down and is in need of major repairs. You have a final exam tomorrow morning at 8:00, so you have to get to school, which unfortunately is 20 miles away. How will you get there? You are having a party for 30 friends. What kind of food and drink will you serve ? You wake up early one morning to find a steady stream of rainwater leaking through your bedroom ceiling. You must stop the leak as fast as possible. How will you do it? The Internal Revenue Service has just notified you that, according to its records, you owe several hundred dollars in back taxes and interest. You need to find your tax records from three years ago and recheck the numbers to prove that you filed an accurate return. It has been weeks since you've had a good night's sleep because of your new neighbors' barking dog. You need your sleep. How are you going to ensure that you get it? © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Barriers to Problem Solving Mental SetPersisting in using problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past rather than trying new ones. © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Practice overcoming mental sets!

9-Dot Problem Answer © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Functional FixednessTendency to think of an object functioning only in its usual or customary way © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Barriers to Problem Solving

Barriers to Problem SolvingPreferring information that confirms PREEXISTING positions or beliefs, while ignoring or discounting contradictory evidence. A student who is going to write a research paper may primarily search for information that would confirm his or her beliefs.  The student may fail to search for or fully consider information that is inconsistent with his or her beliefs.      A reporter who is writing an article on an important issue may only interview experts that support her or his views on the issue.     An employer who believes that a job applicant is highly intelligent may pay attention only to information that is consistent with the belief that the job applicant is highly intelligent. © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Confirmation Bias

Barriers to Problem SolvingAvailability heuristic Judging the likelihood or probability of an event based on how readily available the other instances of the event are in memory. People who read more case studies of successful businesses may judge the probability of running a successful business to be greater.  Representativeness Heuristic Estimating the probability of something based on how well the circumstances match (or represent) our previous prototype If I meet three people from a company and they are all aggressive, I will assume that the company has an aggressive culture and that most other people from that firm will also be aggressive. © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Problem Solve! Three friends went to a restaurant for lunch. The bill came to $30.00, so each paid $10.00 to the waiter, who left to pay the bill. The cashier noticed that the waiter had charged full price for drinks that were at "happy hour" prices. The actual bill should have been $25.00. The waiter gave the diners their $5.00 refund. The happy friends decided they would add $2.00 to a separate tip they had left on the table and each kept one dollar. At this point, one friend noted that with the refund each had paid $9.00 for their lunch, and the waiter received $2.00 in extra tip. Three times nine = $27.00 plus $2.00 = $29.00. The friend was now concerned that the waiter had kept an extra dollar. What is wrong with this friend's reasoning? © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Creativity: Elements of Creative Thinking © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Ability to produce valued outcomes in a novel way

Thinking and CreativityDivergent Thinking In 5 minutes, how many words can you make from the letters in hippopotamus? Thinking that produces many alternatives from a single starting point; a major element of creativity Convergent Thinking Determining the best answer to a multiple- choice question. Narrowing down alternatives to converge on a single correct answer © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Resources ofCreative People © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

LANGUAGEForm of communication using sounds and symbols combined according to specified rules © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. WILEY VIDEO Drive Brain Power

© 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. HW Read pp. 293(?) to 299 Complete Questions on Page 299Parts A and B

Language and Thought Topics to talk about Structure, and Use of Language Stages of Language Development How Language Develops: Nature, Nurture, and Critical Periods Language and the Brian Language in other Species? Thinking and language influence each other Thinking in images, not verbal language

Building Blocks of Language © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Language: Uses and Structure We can hear about and understand phenomena we have never experienced. We can connect to people far away. We can make plans and have others carry them out. We can know what another person is thinking more directly than just by observing their behavior. We can store information. What is language made of? Phonemes are the smallest units of sound (vowels and consonants). Morphemes are the units of meaning, i.e. words and meaningful parts of words such as suffixes, prefixes). Grammar refers to the rules for using words, including semantics, definitions, connotations, and syntax (how the order of words makes meaning).

What motivates children to develop language? © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Nature Argument Children are prewired with a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) enabling them to analyze language and extract basic rules of grammar. Nurture Argument Children learn language via a complex system of rewards, punishments and imitation. WILEY VIDEO Bird Brain Gene WILEY VIDEO How to Talk to Kids

Language Acquisition © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Animals and Language Apes have been taught to use sign language and to use symbols on a keyboard. Dolphins can understand hand signals and audible commands © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. WILEY VIDEO Monkey Talk

LANGUAGE: Definitions Language consists of the use of symbols to represent, transmit, and store meaning/information. Symbols include organized patterns of sounds, visual representations, and movements. Meaning includes concepts, quantities, plans, identity, feelings, ideas, facts, and customs. Ѭ

Language Development is an Amazing Process We acquire the use of 10 new words per day (on average) between ages 2 and 18. Children learn the basic grammar of language before they can add 2 + 2.Most kids can recall words and meanings, and assemble words into sentences, while simultaneously following social rules for speaking and listening. abbreviate absorbent accept access accessible accessory acoustics accumulate adjust aerial affects alienallotmentallottedalreadyaltercationamassamendment amorousancestoranecdoteangularanonymousantidoteantiqueantisepticarchitectarrangement asphalt assignment asterisk attorneys audible aviator bachelorbankruptcybarbaricbaskbatterybehavior benefitedberserkbesiegedbicycleblanchbrilliancebudgetbulletinbusinesscachetcallus cancellationcanvascanvasscapriciouscarburetorcashiercatastrophecentripetalcharacteristicchaste irksomeirresistibleirrevocableissuingitemizedjewelryjudiciousjurorjustifiablelandslidelegitimate leisure liaison library license lieutenant loophole lunar luncheon magnify malefactor malicious markup mattress mesmerize meteor metric mischievous misgiving modern modicum mystery negligence neon neutral newsstand nineteenth nonentity noticeable notoriety nuisance numerator nylon obesity oblique obstinate obsolete officious opposite optimism oregano overrate pageant parliament passable paucity penalty perseverance personality picnicking plaintiff cinnamon classic collateral colleague college comedy commerce commercial committee communicate commuter compel compensation competent consider contiguous corporal council counsel country creator critique customary customer daybreak deceive defendant deficient deficit depreciation desirable desolate detain devour diagnosis diffidence diminish disappeared disapproval disbursement discernible discrepancy disinterested disoblige dissociate distress diurnal divine domestic domesticate dominance easier ecstasy effect eject eligible eliminate erroneous especially exceptional excessive existence exotic expressionextremityextricatefacsimilefamiliarfantasticfaultyfederalfeudflexiblefloutfluorescentfolkloreforciblefortunatelyfranchisefrivolousfrostbittenfurthergalaxygallinggenuinegesturegeologygiganticgnawinggorgeousgrotesquegymnasiumhandicappedhandlinghandsomehaphazardharnesshazardousheadquartershomogenizehorrifichumidoridiosyncrasyimpatienceimpingeincandescentinconsolableindelibleineptinfluenceinnocenceinnumerableinsistentinsolubleintegrityintensifypoignantpotentialprecedingprecipicepreoccupyprospectusquestquestionnairequixoticradioactiverapaciousrayonrazerecentlyreconcilerelevantreliefrepulsereviverhymerhythmroommaterostersanctuarysandwichscarcelyscheduleschismscholarschoonerseditionsemesterseminarysessionshrinesievesignalsincerelysoccersolitarysubvertstatutoryterrificthievestragedytransienttransmutationturpitudetyrannyunacceptableuniqueunmovedusherutopiavengeancevocalvoucherwithholdwrestlewrittenativeinvariable How do we learn language? Language Development

Age (months) Talent/Behavior/Stage 0-4 months In fantis (“not speaking”) Receptive language: associating sounds with facial movements, and recognizing when sounds are broken into words 4 months Productive language: babbling in multilingual sounds and gestures10 monthsBabbling sounds more like the parents’/household’s language 12 months One-word stage: understanding and beginning to say many nouns 18-24 months Two-word, “telegraphic”/tweet speech: adding verbs, and making sentences but missing words (“See bird! Ree book? Go park!”) 24+ months, 2+ years Speaking full sentences and understanding complex sentences How do we learn language? Language Talents and Stages

Explaining Language Acquisition: Nature and Nurture The Role of GenesWe seem to have an inborn (genetic) talent for acquiring language , though no particular kind of language is in the genes. The Role of Experience We also seem to have a “statistical” pattern recognition talent. Infants quickly recognize patterns in syllable frequency and sequence , preparing them to later learn words and syntax. MID CAN TION NAV PER ABA GACT

Critical Periods According to one study with immigrants, beginning a language later made it harder to learn the pronunciation and the grammar of the second language. It is important to begin appropriate language exposure/education early so that language centers of the brain continue to develop. Language might never develop if not begun by age seven.

Sign language has the syntax, grammar, and complex meaning of any spoken language. Deaf and Blind Children Deaf and blind children can use complex adapted languages by using other senses that are heightened. “Blindness cuts people off from things; deafness cuts people off from people.”—Helen Keller What happens if a deaf infant’s parents don’t use sign language? Hint: critical period

Brain and Language: Lessons from damage Examples of aphasia: having the ability to speak but not read, to produce words in song but not in conversation, and to speak but not repeat; or producing words in jumbled order Aphasia: an impairment in the ability to produce or understand language, usually caused by damage to the brain Broca’s area, in the left temporal lobe Wernicke’s area, left temporal lobe Damage to Broca’s area leads to difficulty in putting words together in sentences or even speaking single words, although a person can sing a song. Damage to Wernicke’s area leads to difficulty comprehending speech and producing coherent speech (not easily monitoring one’s own speech to make sure it makes sense).

Language and the Brain How to read a word, steps 1 to 5 Remember: language functions are divided in the brain.

Can other species communicate with us through language? Washoe the chimpanzee learned to use 245 signs to express what she wanted or noticed. Fellow chimpanzees learned signs from each other without training and without rewards. A deaf N.Y. Times reporter visited Washoe and said, “I realized I was conversing with a member of another species in my native tongue.” Do Other Species Use Language? Receptive language for individual human words seems to exist for a few species; dogs can follow hundreds of commands. Productive language: many animals have “words”: sounds, gestures, dances (bees) to communicate information, including different “words” for different objects, states, and places

Is the chimp signing really language? Washoe seemed to combine words in new ways to convey meaning; Washoe used the phrase “apple which is orange” for an orange (fruit). Chimps do not pick up words as easily as human children. Chimp word production lacks syntax , but a bonobo correctly understood “make the dog bite the snake.” Signing “baby”

Thinking and Language, Language and Thinking How does language shape the way we think? How does our style of thinking shape our use of language? Can we think without language by using images?

For example, Benjamin Whorf (1897-1941) proposed that because the Hopi do not have past tense forms for verbs, it is hard for them to think about the past. Can you think about something that you do not have a name for? If so, does that disprove linguistic determinism? Linguistic determinism: the idea that our specific language determines how we think Language Influencing Thought

Language’s Influence on Thought Does language shape emotions or reflect them? Speaking in Japanese provides many extra words for interpersonal emotions such as sympathy and empathy, which Americans might have trouble differentiating. Speaking English gives us many words for self-focused emotions, such as sadness. Do language differences shape personality differences? Bilingual people appear to have different personality profiles when describing themselves in different languages. “Learn a new language and get a new soul.”--Czech proverb. Color Perception We use our native language to classify and to remember colors. Different languages may vary in where they put the separation between “blue” and “green,” or they may not have separate words for these colors. Which squares are green? teal? blue?

© 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. READ pages 300-05 Answer Questions on page 305 Parts A & B

Language Influences Thought Even if “he” and “mankind” are meant at times to be gender-inclusive, people do create a male image in their mind when they hear these terms. Instead of replacing “he” with “he/she” or “their”, we can rewrite sentences without pronouns and possessives; for example, “his” can become “the.” Gender neutral vs. male-based usage

Languages Improve Thinking The Bilingual Advantage People who are bilingual have numerous brain connections and neural networks. They also have a hidden talent, the ability to suppress one language while learning another. This ability tends to go along with other forms of executive control, such as resisting distraction and inhibiting impulses.

Thinking in Images Without Words Is there conscious thinking that goes on without being formed as words? Some everyday decisions, such as which turn to take while driving, are certainly made based on images or other nonverbal content such as mental maps. Using Imagery to Improve Learning Image rehearsal can help us improve behavior , even skilled performance such as playing piano or playing sports. If you imagine getting an A ( outcome simulation ), it may shift your mood up or down but will not improve your grade. Imagining the detailed actions of studying ( process simulation), though, does improve grades.Think about the road, not the destination.

Conclusions Thinking affects our language, which then affects our thought. Thinking in a culture affects the formation of a language, especially its vocabulary. Thinking and language develop together in an individual as they grow. Learning a language and using a language as an adult can affect one’s style and content of thinking.

INTELLIGENCEGlobal capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment. © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Homework Read, study & take notes for pp. 306-313 DO NOW Look at the cartoon on the next slide. What would Howard Gardner say about this?

© 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Intelligence as a Single Factor Cattell (1960s):Believed that g was composed of two subfactors © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Spearman (1920s) : Intelligence as a general single factor (g) responsible for reasoning, problem solving and cognition Fluid Intelligence refers to innate, inherited reasoning abilities, memory, and speed of information processing Crystallized Intelligence refers to the store of knowledge and skills gained through experience and education WILEY VIDEO Smart Robots

Many Intelligences?Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Many Intelligences?Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. http:// bigthink.com/videos/reevaluating-intelligence

Measuring Intelligence: Stanford-Binet Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is expressed as a single person’s score compared to a national average for similarly aged people. © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Measuring Intelligence: Wechsler (WISC-IV, WAIS) © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

What Makes a Good Test? Standardization Every test has norms established on a representative group of people like the intended takers.Testing procedures must be uniform. Validity The test must actually measure what it is designed to measure. © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Reliability Test scores must be consistent and reproducible if the test is taken again. Test-retest Split-half

Extremes in Intelligence:Mental Retardation © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Extremes in Intelligence:Mental Giftedness © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Who is gifted? People who have a 135 or higher IQ, or are in the top 1 or 2% of intelligence. People who are gifted: earn excellent grades and are socially well adjusted are taller and stronger more likely to be highly successful: scientists, college teachers, business people but just as likely as the national average to get divorced, commit suicide, and become alcoholics

The Brain’s Influence on Memory © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Does a bigger brain mean greater intelligence? Humans have bigger brain to body ratios compared to whales and dolphins, and have relatively large brains, generally. MRI studies have found a significant correlation between brain size and intelligence (adjusted for body size). Einstein did not have a relatively larger brain, but it was larger in areas important in math. Is a faster brain more intelligent? There is a correlation between intelligence and the speed with which someone makes an accurate decision. Does a smart brain work harder? PET scans indicate that areas of the brain involved in problem solving are LESS active (more efficient) in people who are more intelligent.