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THESEARCHFORWORTHYLEADERSHIPA.DaleThompson,MyrandaGrahek,RyanE.Phillips,andCaraL.FayLeadershipWorthFollowing,LLCThispaperpresentsamodelofleadershipcalled“worthyleadership,”denedas“theabilitytoguide,direct,orinuencepeopleinawaythathasgreatmerit,character,andvalue.”Themodel,whichderivedfromtheauthors’experiencesconsultingwithandassessingseniorleaderscombinedwithexistingresearchndings,encompassesthreemajorconstructs.Thesearelabeled:TheCapacitytoLead,TheCommitmenttoLead,andTheCharactertoLead.Thefactorsthatmakeupeachmajorconstructaredescribedalongwithimplicationsofthemodelforresearchandpractice.leadership,worthyleadership,capacity,commitment,character,executiveperformanceInthepracticeofconsulting,psychologistsareoftencalledupontohelporganizationsidentify,develop,andultimatelyselecttopexecutiveleaders.Thereisanimplicithope,ifnotapresumption,thatrecommendedleadersbyvirtueoftheirskills,whatisimportanttothem,andtheirpersonalbehavior,willpracticeleadershipthatisworthfollowing.Inexaminingtheimpactofleadershipfailures,wewerestruckbyboththenumberofsuchfailuresandthecarnageleftinthewakeofobviously“unworthy”leadership.Theseleadershaveultimatelycostmanythousandsofemployeestheirjobsandpensions,shareholdersbillionsinvalue,andevenleftcommunitieswithoutanchorentitiesthatfundedroads,schools,hospitals,andotheressentialcommunityservices.Astheseniorauthorconsideredtheleadershehadknownbest,andalsofollowedCongressionalhearingsandseeminglycountlesslegalproceedingsinvolvingothers,hewasstruckbythesuperbskillsofmanyoftheleaderswhosubsequentlyfailed.Whenhelookedevenmoredeeplyintowhotheseindividualswereaspeople,theknowledgetheypossessedasleaders,theirexpertiseintheirchosenelds,andtheirpersonaldriveandworkhabits,hewassurprisedatthecontrastbetweenhowwelltheywouldhave A.DaleThompson,MyrandaGrahek,RyanE.Phillips,andCaraL.Fay,LeadershipWorthFollowing,LLC,Irving,Texas.Thesubjectofthearticle,“TheWorthyLeadershipModel,”iscopyrightedandownedbyLeadershipWorthFollowing,LLC(LWF).Theseniorauthorownsthecompany,andtheotherauthorsareemployeesofLWF.CorrespondenceconcerningthisarticleshouldbeaddressedtoA.DaleThompson,LeadershipWorthFollowing,LLC,5605NorthMacArthurBoulevard,Suite760,Irving,TX75038.E-mail:ConsultingPsychologyJournal:PracticeandResearchCopyright2008bytheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation2008,Vol.60,No.4,366–3821065-9293/08/$12.00DOI:10.1037/1065-9293.60.4.366 performedinmostassessmentsandtherealityoftheirsubsequentdemise.Theseleaderswere,inmanyways,outstandingexecutivesandwerehighlyrespectedbypeoplewhoseopinionsmostofuswouldvalue.Sowhatwentwrong?Andwhatcanwe,asconsultingpsychologists,dotohelporganizationspreventthekindsofcatastrophesthathavecausedsuchseriousleadershipandmanagerialfailures?OriginsoftheModelTobeginansweringthosequestions,welookedtoassessmenttheories,practices,andtoolscommonlyusedinoureld.Thereweretoolssuchasbehavioralinterviews,cognitiveandproblemsolvingtests,personalityandstyleinventories,worksimulations,andassessmentcentertechnologies,tonameafew.Wealsolookedmoredeeplyatourownprocessforassessingexecutivesandtookprideinseeingthatweusedmultitrait,multimethod,andmultiassessormodelsofassessment,designedtoquicklybringthemostreliable,valid,andrelevantdata-pointstobearonselectiondecisions.Armedwithrichdata,wecouldenvisioncondentlyrecommendingleadersforkeypositionsthatcouldimpacthundreds,thousands,andevenmillionsofpeople’slives.Yet,werecognizedtheneedtolearnfromtherecentspectacularexecutivefailures.Ofcoursewerecognizethattheeldofconsultingpsychology,likeallscience-deriveddisciplines,willneverbeperfect,especiallywhenconsideringthecomplexityofhumanbehavior,situationalconstraints,andtheinteractionbetweenthesevariables.Whenlookingattheassessmenttheories,practices,andtoolsdevelopedthroughoutthelastcentury,theeldofconsultingpsychologyandotherrelatedeldshavecomeaverylongway.However,forwardprogressisoftendependentupontheanalysisofthosecriticallyimportantinstanceswheneventhebestassessmentpracticescurrentlyinusearemarkedlySowhatseemedtogowronginthepracticeofconsultingpsychologyintheassess-mentofthesefailedleaders?Oneobservationisthatwemayhavebeenassessingontoofewvariables,and/orwithatraditionalbiastowardcapacity(i.e.,intelligenceandknowledge)relatedvariables.InJanuaryof2004,wesetouttobetterunderstandandconceptualizetheseissues.Webeganaprocessofsystematicallylookingatbothsuccessfulandfailedexecutivesandtheirorganizations.Ourgoalwastodeterminewhetherwecouldhelpourclientsavoidwhatwereclearlycatastrophicfailuresofexecutiveleadershipbylookingmorebroadlyatexecutiveperformance.Thesepreliminaryeffortsinvolvedreviewingclientassessmentlesandpubliclyavailableinformation,andsearchingforpointsofdifferentiationbetweensuccessandfailureinhigh-proleleadersoverthepastdecade.Themorewelookedatthisinformationthemorewecametobelievethatleadershipneededtobemorethanjustcompetentoreffective—itneededtobe“worthy,”andthatexecutivesneededtopractice“worthyleadership.”Aswethoughtaboutdening“worthyleadership,”werstconsideredeachwordseparately.Theword“worthy”refersto“havingadequateorgreatmerit,character,orvalue”(RandomHouseDictionary,2005).Theword“leadership”refers,forourpurposes,tohaving“theabilitytoguide,direct,orinuencepeople”(EncartaDictionary,2007).Takentogether,ourworkingdenitionofworthyleadershipwas“theabilitytoguide,direct,orinuencepeopleinawaythathasgreatmerit,character,andvalue.”Andaswelookedattheclusterofattributesthatneededtobeaccountedforinworthyleadership,SPECIALISSUE theyseemtofallsurprisinglyneatlyintothreeconstructs:TheCapacitytoLeadCommitmenttoLead,andTheCharactertoLead.ReningtheModelTobeginevaluatingourinitialideas,experience,andtheoreticalbeliefs,LWFpart-neredwithTheUniversityofTexasatArlington(UTA).MarkFrame,PhD,andhisgraduatestudentswereaskedtoconductanextensiveliteraturesearchofworkthatmightsupportorrefuteourinitialthoughtson,andascoreconstructsrelatedtoexecutiveperformanceandworthyleadership.Theywrotedetailedwhitepapersbasedontheseliteraturereviews,andpresentedtheirndingstotherm’sAdvisoryBoardofDirectorsinOctober,2004.Thesewhitepaperswerehighlyencour-aging,andusedasablueprintforputtingtogetherthebasicstructureofwhatwebegantocallTheWorthyLeadershipModelTheCapacitytoLeadTherstconstructwasfoundtobemostcloselyalignedwithcurrentresearchandpracticerelevanttogeneralintelligence,technicalknowledgeandskills,andcoreperson-alitytraits(which,forleaders,mayactmorelikeabilityvariables)thathavebeenconsistentlylinkedwitheffectiveleadership.Itlaysoutthepracticallimitsofwhatispossible,andwherecertainaptitudesandskillsmaybeavailabletocompensateforotherdeciencies.Inessence,thisconstructfocusesattentiononwhatexecutiveleaderscandointheirleadershiproles.TheCommitmenttoLeadThesecondcoreconstructreferstothemultifacetedpassionsandenergiesthatseemtopropelleaderstoextraordinaryperformance.Thisiswheretermssuchas“motivation”begintoemergewithintheresearchliterature,andwhencareerandpersonalintereststakecenterstage.Whatarepeople,namelyleaders,interestedin?Whatdotheywanttodo?Asbasicasthesequestionsappear,theiranswersbecomecrucialforunderstandingperformanceandwhatoftentimesdifferentiatespeople,andsuccessfulleadershipfromfailedleadership.Peopletendtofollowtheirpreferencesbychoosingthethingstheywanttodo,andovertime,theyultimatelydobetterinthoseareas(Holland,1997).Therefore,thisconstructfocusesattentiononwhatexecutiveleaderswanttodointheirleadershiproles.TheCharactertoLeadThethirdcoreconstructwasfoundtobetheleastaddressedincurrentleadershiptheoryandresearch,butcentraltoexplainingthemostgloriousfailuresofleadershipweexamined.Manyofthefailure-relatedissuesandbehaviorsseemed“character”related,andthereforewarrantedseparatetreatment.Thisconstructfocusesattention,inabehav-ioralmanner,onwhatexecutiveleaderswilldo,bothpositivelyandnegatively,acrossavarietyofleadershipcontexts.Wethencontinuedtheprocessofoperationallydeningthethreecoreconstructsbyreachingconsensusonthefactors,dimensions,andbehavioralitemstobeincludedwithineachconstruct.Theendresultwasa12-factormodelorganizedunderthethreecore368THOMPSON,GRAHEK,PHILLIPS,ANDFAY constructs.Withtheinitialperformancemodelcompleted,weidentiedapsychologistfromoutsidethermtoserveasanindependentreviewer.TwelveCEOsandtop-levelexecutivesrepresentingsixindustrieswereinterviewed.Duringtheseinterviews,theinitialperformancemodelwaspresentedtoeachexecutiveandfeedbackwascollectedregardingtherepresentativenessofthemodelfortheirleadershiproles.Overthepast4yearswehavecontinuedtoreneTheWorthyLeadershipModeldevelopassessmenttoolstosupportuseofthemodel,andcollectdatatoseeifthemodeladdsanythingneworusefultotheeldofconsultingpsychology—andmostimportantly,whetherthemodelcouldbetterhelporganizationsavoidthekindsofcatastrophicfailuresofleadershipwitnessedinrecenthistory.Earlyreturnsontheseeffortsarequitepositive,andwelookforwardtofutureopportunitiestopresenttheseresults.However,inthispaper,ourrstpublishedworkonTheWorthyLeadershipModel,wefocusondescribingthemodelitself,andbrieydiscussingitsrelevancefortheworkofconsultingpsychol-ogists.Theorganizationofthemodelincludingthethreeconstructs,12factors,and32dimensionsisdisplayedinTable1.Beforemovingtoanexplicationofthemodel,wewanttobeclearononemajorpoint.WearenotsuggestingthatthecomponentsofTheWorthyLeadershipModelarenewinthevastrealmofleadershipresearchandpractice.Thecontentinthemodelcoversmuchofthesameterritoryexplored,researched,andconrmedbyotherresearchersoverthelastTable1TheWorthyLeadershipModel Thecapacitytolead1.CapacitytoreasonandmakegooddecisionsCriticalthinking&decisionmaking;numerical&nancialacumen2.Capacitytosee&realizethefutureSeeingthefuture;strategic&executionexcellence;globalacumen3.Capacitytocommunicate&inuenceInspiration&inuence;conictmanagement;leadershippresence4.CapacitytoknowJob&industryknowledge;businessknowledge5.Capacitytopersevere&adaptEnergy,adaptability,&humorThecommitmenttolead6.CommitmenttoexcellenceDenessuccess;passionforresults7.Commitmenttopeople&relationshipsBuildingtalent;diversity&culture;interpersonaleffectiveness8.Commitmenttolearning&personalgrowthInsatiablecuriosity;self-awareness&development9.CommitmenttostakeholdersCustomers;teammembers;theorganization;shareholders;thecommunityThecharactertolead10.PersonalintegrityðicsPersonalintegrity;ethics;openness11.Organizationalintegrity&courageOrganizationalintegrity;courage;power12.Humility,gratitude,&forgivenessHumility;gratitude;forgivenessSPECIALISSUE halfcenturyormore.Italsocontainssomenewerelements.Ouraimistoofferanalternativeconceptualizationofexecutiveleadershipperformanceandamoretransparentwaytobalancewhatiscurrentlyknownandwhatmaybenew.Indoingso,wearehopingtobeabletobetterdiscuss,measure,andemphasizewhatmaybeleadingtocatastrophicfailuresofleadershipinsomecases,andsignicantsuccessesinothers.TheCapacitytoLeadResearchconsistentlydemonstratesthatintelligenceispositivelyrelatedtoleadershipperformance(Bentz,1990;Foti&Hauenstein,2007;Howard&Bray,1988;Judge,Colbert,&Ilies,2004;Lord,DeVader,&Alliger,1986).However,webelievegeneralintelligencealoneisnotenoughtopredicteffectiveperformanceandthatothercapacitiesalsouniquelycontributetosuccessfulleadership.TheCapacitytoLeadconsistsofveCapacitytoReasonandMakeGoodDecisionsCapacitytoSeeandRealizetheCapacitytoCommunicateandInßuenceCapacitytoKnow,andCapacitytoPersevereandAdapt.CapacitytoReasonandMakeGoodDecisions(CRMGD)Attheheartofliescognitiveabilityandintelligence.Manyleadership(e.g.,Fiedler,1986;Fiedler&Garcia,1987;Gottfredson,1997;Schmidt&Hunter,2000)havefoundcognitiveability(typicallymeasuredasgeneralintelligence,ortobesignicantlylinkedtojobperformanceandthatthemagnitudeofthisrelationshipincreaseswithjobcomplexity.Leadersareconstantlyaskedtoprocesslargeamountsofoftenambiguousinformationandtotranslatethisinformationintocreativesolutionsforcomplexproblems.Largecorrelations,above.50,werefoundbetweengeneralmentalabilityandperformanceinameta-analysiscoveringalllevelsandtypesofjobs(Schmidt&Hunter,2004).However,whenSchmidtandHunter(2004)examinedthecorrelationbetweenintelligenceandperformancesolelyforthoseinleadershiproles,thisrelationshipdecreasedsubstantially(.21).Thereareanumberofstudiessuggestingthatintelli-genceisoneindividualdifferencevariablethatdistinguishesperformanceacrossmostjobs,butthatitisnottheonlycapacityaleadermustpossesstobesuccessful.Judge,Colbert,andIlies(2004)presentedaquantitativereviewoftherelationshipbetweenintelligenceandleadership.Interestingly,whiletheyfoundsignicanceinthisrelationship.27),apreviousreviewbyJudge,Bono,Ilies,andGerhardt(2002)thatinspectedindividualdifferencesotherthanintelligence(e.g.,personalitytheoriessuchasthe“BigFive”)revealedevenlargercorrelationsbetweenleadershipandextraversion.31).Thesamewasfoundforleadershipandconscientiousness(.28).ThissuggeststhatitisimportanttoconsiderindividualdifferencesotherthanintelligenceNotsurprisingly,therstdimensionofcriticalthinkinganddecision,acknowledgestheimportanceofintelligence,andthinking,inleadership.However,italsoemphasizestheneedforleaderstothinkWecontendthatleaderswhohaveanaturalabilityforthinkingcriticallyandmakingsounddecisionsarenotonlyquickthinkers,theyarelikelytoinsightfullyanalyzerelevantissues,askpenetratingquestions,andcontributegreatideasandsolutions.TheseconddimensionofnumericalandÞnancialacumen,istheabilitytoseethebusinessthroughnumbers.InastudybyMurphy(2005),numericalthinkingwas370THOMPSON,GRAHEK,PHILLIPS,ANDFAY foundtobeasignicantpredictorofmanagers’careerpotential.Thisdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatleadershiprequiresadvancedmathematicalability,butitdoesrequireanunderstandingofbusinessmetricsandtheirimpactontheorganization.CapacitytoSeeandRealizetheFuture(CSRF)Trulygreatleadershavetheabilitytoenvisionacompellingfuturefortheircompa-nies.Weconsiderasessentialinestablishingstrategicobjectivesandanticipatingtrends,hurdles,andbarriersfacingtheorganization.Thiscapacityisoftenthoughtofasendingwithdevelopingandcommunicatingastrategicvision;however,thevisioncannotberealizedwithoutestablishingandexecutingstrategicobjectiveswithinthecontextofanincreasinglyglobalenvironment.Thisisthebasisforthethreedimensionsofseeingthefuturestrategicandexecutionexcellence,andglobalacumenTherstdimensionofseeingthefuture,involvesdevelopingavisionandinnovativesolutions.Thiscanalsomeanchallengingcurrentthinkingandassumptions.AccordingtoConger(1990),thelargestcontributortonegativeleadershipoutcomesisalackof(orfaulty)strategicvision.JohnHumphreys(2004),authorofTheVisionThinghighlightstheimportanceofbeingabletoanticipatethefuture.Hewrites,“Ifacorporateleaderissuccessful,hisorhervisioniscitedasthecauseandlaudedasthefoundationoftheleader’sgreatness....Tobesure,anorganizationwithoutappropriatevisionislikelytofail”(p.96).Afterdevelopingapracticalvision,gettingothersralliedarounditandexecutingit,becomesthenextbigchallenge.Theseconddimensionoftrategicandexecution,involvesestablishingobjectivesandperformancestandards,whilebalancinglong-termgoalsandshort-termresultstoensureexecutionofthevision.Thisisthecoreofmostexecutivemanagementpositions.Thethirddimensionofglobalacumen,referstotheabilitytoanticipatetheimpactofglobaleventsandtrendsonthebusiness.Today’senvironmentrequiressuccessfulleaderstopossessadeeperunderstandingoftheglobalbusinessenvironmentthanwascalledforinthepast.Leaderswiththisunderstandingleverageglobaleventsandopportunitiesforbusinessadvantageandworkeffectivelywithglobalorganizations.Globalacumenhasreceivedincreasingattentionandresearchershavegivenitvariouslabels.Morrison,Gregersen,andBlack(1999)callit“SavvyGlobalLeadership;”DenHartogandKoopman(2003)refertoitsimplyas“GlobalLeadership.”Thelabelmaychange,butformanyorganizationsitisevidentthatglobalacumenisbecomingcentraltoeffectiveleadership.CapacitytoCommunicateandInßuence(CCI)Insomerespects,shiftsthefocusfromthetraditionaldenitionsofcapacity(i.e.,cognitiveability)tootherskillsandabilitiesrequiredofleaders.Inadditiontotheabilitytomakegooddecisionsandenvisionacompellingfuture,webelievethatachievingsuccessfulresultsrequiresleaderstocommunicatewithandtopositivelyimpactandinuenceothers.Undertheheadingweinclude:inspirationandinßuence,andleadershippresence.Therstdimensionofinspirationandinßuence,representstheleader’sabilitytoinspireabroadsenseofpurposeintheorganization,effectivelymanageorganizationalpoliticsandopposition,andadjustcommunicationstyletobestinuenceothers.Thersttwodimensionsoftransformationalleadership,asdenedbyBass(1985),are(inuencesimilartothatofarolemodel)andinspirationalmotivationSPECIALISSUE throughprovidingasenseofpurpose).Ameta-analysisbyLoweandKroeck(1996)foundhighcorrelations(.60andhigher)betweenleadershipeffectivenessandtransformationalleadership.Furthermore,transformationalleadershiphadhighercorrelationswithleader-shipeffectivenessthantransactionalleadership.Webelieveleaderswiththeabilitytoinspireandinuencehaveamuchgreaterimpactonthosetheyworkwithandthecompaniestheyworkfor.Theseconddimensionofconßictmanagement.Conictatworkisinevitable,andmanagingconictwellisanimportantaspectofleadership.In1976,ThomasandSchmidtfoundthat18%ofaCEO’stime,21%ofaVP’stime,and26%ofamiddlemanager’stimeatworkwasspentresolvingconict(Thomas&Schmidt,1976).Itisverydifculttoinuence,inspire,andalignpeoplearoundacommongoalwhentheyareghtingwithoneanother.Peopletendtofollowleadersthatattempttounderstandandaddresstheirneeds.Tjosvold,Wedley,andField(1986)showedthateffectiveconictmanagementprocesseswerehighlycorrelatedwithsuccessfuldecisionmaking.Tobesure,conictisnotalwaysabadthing;whenwellmanagedanddepersonalized,itcanleadtobetter,morecreativesolutions.Effectiveconictmanagementdoesnotrequireevery-onetogetalongoragree;itdoesrequireredirectingenergytoacommongoalandThenaldimensionofleadershippresence,referstothecapacitytobuildstakeholdercondencebycrediblyrepresentingoneselfandtheorganization.Weseethisasbeingconceptuallydifferentthancharisma,transformationalleadership,orsimplytheabilitytopersuade.Itistheabilityofaleadertodealdirectlywithdifcultquestionswhileremainingsteady,composed,andcredible.Atitsheart,leadershippresenceisdemon-stratingarelaxedcomfortwithself,whichputsothersappropriatelyatease.CapacitytoKnow(CK)Thefourthfactor,,referstounderstandingthefunctions,processes,andhistoryofanorganizationanditsindustry.Itiscomprisedoftwodimensions:jobandindustrybusinessknowledge.Educationandexperiencearethekeyingredientstobothoftheseareas.Therstdimensionofjobandindustryknowledge.Ithighlightstheneedforappropriatejobknowledge,skills,education,credentials,andunderstandingoftheindus-try.Educationhasbecomemorepredominantwithintheprofessionalbusinessenviron-mentoverthelast30to50years.TheUnitedStatesDepartmentofHigherEducation(2000)indicatesthatonly3,200MBAsweregrantedinthe1955through1956academicyear,whileover102,000MBAsweregrantedin1997through1998.However,morethansimplyhavingtherightcredentials.Accordingtothemodel,athoroughknowledgeoftheworkisfundamentaltoeffectiveleadership.Theseconddimensionofbusinessknowledge.Itfocusesattentionontheneedforasolidunderstandingofbusinessprinciplesandmodels,aswellascross-functionalknowledge.Thisknowledgehelpsleadersorganizeinformation,andprovidesabasisformakingeffectivedecisions.Knowinghowthevariousfunctionsofabusinessworkwithandthrougheachotherisespeciallyimportantforbuildingalliances,andultimately,forleadershipsuccess(Mumford,Campion,&Morgeson,2007).CapacitytoPersevereandAdapt(CPA)Leadinginanyenvironment,butparticularlyinaturbulentbusinessenvironment,isstressful.AccordingtoKrupp(1995),thelevelofstressintheworkplaceincreased372THOMPSON,GRAHEK,PHILLIPS,ANDFAY throughthelate20thcentury.Infact,threefourthsofworkersbelievedtheyexperiencedmorestressthanpreviousgenerations(PrincetonSurveyResearch,1997).Therapidmovetoa24/7globalbusinesscultureinthe21stcenturysuggeststhistrendisnotlikelytoreverse(BusinessWire,2007).Leaderswhoembodythisfactorkeepgoinginthefaceofobstacles,especiallywhenotherswouldweardownand/orgiveup.A1970surveyfound25studiessuggestingleadersgenerallyhavehigherlevelsofenergythanotheremployees.Thisenablesthemtomaintainhighlevelsofproductivity,evenindifculttimes(Bass,1990).Highlevelsofandhumorincreasethelikelihoodofremainingeffectiveeventhroughtheroughpatches.Zaccaro,Gilbert,Thor,andMumford(1991)denebehavioralexibilityas“theabilitytorespondaccordinglytothecharacteristicsofaparticularsituation”(p.328).Havingtheabilitytoadapttoever-changingbusinesssituationsisimperativetosuccessfulleadership.The1981downsizingwithinIllinoisBellTelephonehighlightstheimportanceof.Themajorityofleadersandotheremployeesaffectedbythedownsizingreactedinoneoftwoways:eithertheirperformance,commitment,andhealthplummeted—orsoared.Maddi(1987)reviewedthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthosewhoremainedhealthyandeffectiveandthosewhodidnot.Theyconcludedthatitwasalevelof“hardiness,”whichweseeasapersonality-likevariable,whichdeterminedwhetherornotanindividualwouldbedefeatedorthrive(Maddi,1987).This“hardiness”orresiliencyisattheheartofTakentogether,researchandourworksuggestthatthesevecapacitiesarefunda-mental,measurable,andcontributesignicantlytoleadershipsuccess.Theytendtodescribewhataleadercando.Theyalsotendtobefrequentlyresearched,assessed,andmeasured;andinourview,maybeoveremphasizedinthepracticeofconsultingTheCommitmenttoLeadWecontendthatTheCapacitytoLead,althoughessentiallyimportantforeffectiveperformance,isnotsufcienttodescribeworthyleadership.Whatleadersareinterestedin,andwhatisimportanttothem—whatwecallTheCommitmenttoLead—isalsoanecessarycomponentofworthyleadership.Theliteraturebroadlydenescommitmentas“aforcethatbindsanindividualtoacourseofactionofrelevancetooneormoretargets”(Cohen,2003,p.xi).Overthelastcentury,dozensofdenitionshaveemergedwithintheliteraturetodescribeanindividual’scommitmentwithintheworkplace(Morrow,1983).Inexecutiveroles,commitmenthastobemuchmorethanageneralcommitmenttoanorganization,career,orjob.Ourworksuggeststhatexecutivescareabout,andtheyshowthattheycare,beginstodifferentiateworthyleadershipfromleadershipthatresultsincatastrophicfailure.TheCommitmenttoLeadencompassesfourmultidimen-sionalfactorsthat,whenwellunderstoodandadroitlybalanced,weargue,willpropelleaderstoexemplaryperformance:CommitmenttoExcellenceCommitmenttoPeopleandCommitmenttoLearningandPersonalGrowth,andCommitmenttoCommitmenttoExcellence(CE)Manyindividualsarepromotedintoleadershippositionsasaresultofgoingaboveandbeyondwhatothersarewillingtodo.Quitesimply,theyworkharderandtryharderthanSPECIALISSUE everyoneelseandsubsequentlygetrewardedwithleadershipresponsibilities.AsnotedbyMcClellandandBurnham(1976),thereisaninherentparadoxinthetendencyforindividualstoemergeasleadersbasedontheirneedtoperformbetterthantheircounterparts.Theauthorsnote,“Thereisnoreasonontheoreticalgroundswhyapersonwhohasastrongneed[forpersonalachievement]shouldmakeagoodmanager...itleadspeopletobehaveinveryspecialwaysthatdonotnecessarilyleadtogoodmanagement”(p.100).McClellandandBoyatzis(1982)foundsupportforthisparadoxbydemonstratingthatindividualcontributionsarenotenoughforleaderstobecomesuc-cessfulathigherorganizationallevels.TherstdimensionofdeÞnessuccess.Weviewtherequisiterststeptoachievingexcellenceisaleader’sabilitytoclearlyseeandarticulatewhatsuccesslookslikeforhimorher,others,andtheorganization.Theextenttowhichleadersdenesuccessdeterminestheirabilitytomaintainhighperformancestandards,notacceptmediocrity,anddriverepeatablesuccess.Theseconddimensionofpassionforresults.Inadditiontoclearlydeningwhatsuccesslookslike,leadersplaytowin.Byham(2003)states,“[Apassionforresults]reectsaperson’sdesiretoovercomeobstaclesandgetthingsdonewithexcellence”(p.9).Thisalsoincludesawillingnesstohelpothersdomorethantheybelievepossible,whereasalsodealingdirectlywithnonperformanceandnonperformers.CommitmenttoPeopleandRelationships(CPR)Asaleaderreacheshigherlevelswithinanorganization,hisorherindividualsuccess(aswellasthesuccessoftheorganizationanditspeople)increasinglycorrespondstotheleader’sauthenticlevelofcommitmenttopeopleandrelationships.Arelentlessfocusontaskandgoalaccomplishment,whichoftengetsleaderstothedirectorlevel,needstobeincreasinglyinbalancewithanattentiontowhatisimportanttoothersastheygoevenhigherinorganizations.Leaderswhofullygraspthispointgeneratepositivemomentumandessentialgoodwill(evenfollowership)byeffectivelyworkingwithandthroughothers.Thebehaviorsincludedwithinthisfactordrawfrom,butarenotlimitedto,recentconceptualizationsofemotionalintelligence(Salovey&Mayer,1990)andtransforma-tionalleadership(Bass,1985).Therstdimensionofbuildingtalent.Itemphasizestheneedforleaderstomakedevelopingorganizationaltalentapriority.Itiscommonlysaidthatleadersareonlyasgoodastheirfollowers.Ifso,leaderscarrytheresponsibilityforndingandequippingpeoplewiththeskillsneededtobesuccessful.Forthisreason,muchoftheliteraturecoveringeffectiveleadershipemphasizestheneedforleaderstoactivelycommittodevelopingothers(Bossidy&Charan,2003;Byham,2003;Wood&Vilkinas,2004).Theseleadersattract,select,andretaintoptalent,andsupporttalentdevelopmentefforts.Theseconddimensionofdiversityandculture.Leaderswhofullycommitthemselvestopeopleandrelationshipsalsocommittomaintainingthediversityandcultureoftheorganization.Theseleadersdeliberatelymodeltheintendedcultureoftheorganization,andconfrontintoleranceordisrespecttowardothers.Thethirdandnaldimensionofinterpersonaleffectiveness.Effectiverela-tionshipsrequireleaderstolistencarefully,communicateanaccurateunderstandingofothers’views,andtactfullysharetheirownviews.Thisencouragesopennessbetweenpeople,andbuildsmutualrespect.Effectiveleadersareawareof,andsensitiveto,whatmakespeopletick,andtheyconsiderbuildingcomfortablerelationshipswithotherstobewellworththeirtimeandeffort.374THOMPSON,GRAHEK,PHILLIPS,ANDFAY CommitmenttoLearningandPersonalGrowth(CLPG)RobertJ.Sternberg(2007)notedinaspecialeditionoftheAmericanPsychologistleadershipthatleaderscanchoosetocommitthemselvestolearning,ortheycanchoosetostagnate.“Effectiveleadersdonotgetstuckintheirpatternsofleadership.Theirleadershipevolvesastheyaccumulateexperience.Theylearnfromexperienceratherthansimplylettingitslessonspassthemby”(p.36).Previousresearchsuggeststhatpeople’sdesiretoengageinthelearningprocessisusuallyatitshighestpointwhentheyrstenteraneworganizationortakeonnewresponsibilities(Ashford&Black,1996).However,withoutthestimulusofthesetypesofnewchallenges,theirappetiteforlearningnewthingsgenerallybeginstodiminish.Effectiveleadersneverstoplearning,andtheymaintainhighlevelsofperformancebycontinuallyworkingontheircraft.Therstdimensionofinsatiablecuriosity.AlbertEinsteinisquotedassaying,“Ihavenospecialtalents,Iamonlypassionatelycurious.”Althoughthereisabitofobviousself-deprecatinghumilitytothisstatement,thereisalsoabitoftruthtoit.Leaderswhotakeresponsibilityfortheirprofessionalgrowthoftendemonstrateacuri-osityforacquiringnewknowledgeandskills.Curiositynotonlyinitiatesthelearningprocess,italsofuelsthedesireforfuturelearning(Harvey,Novicevic,Leonard,&Payne,Theseconddimensionofself-awarenessanddevelopment.Wehaveob-servedthattheleaderswhocontinuallystriveforpersonalgrowthalsodemonstrateself-awareness.Thisinvolvesacommitmenttodevelopingakeeninsightaboutone’sownmotives,behavior,andimpactonothers,andawillingnesstocontinuouslylookforevensmalldevelopmentalopportunitiesandfeedback.Self-awarenessisnotsimplyattendingtowhatworksthroughouttheday.Italsoincorporateslearningfrompainful“crashandburn”experiences.Leadersmustalsoseekfeedbackfromotherstofullyrealizetheirpotential(Peterson&Hicks,1995).Helpfulfeedbackcancomefromanumberofsources(e.g.,coaches,directreports,peers,customers).However,asleadersarepromotedtohigherlevels,thefeedbackchannelsbecomeincreasinglyrestricted(Kaplan,Drath,&Kofodimos,1987).Mostleaderswillhavetoactivelyengageotherstoreceiveunlteredandhelpfulfeedback.CommitmenttoStakeholders(CS)Uptothispoint,highlycommittedleadershavebeencharacterizedbytheycareabout:excellence,people,relationships,learning,andpersonalgrowth.Theseareallcriticalelementsof,butitisoftenleaderscareabout,andhowtheyshowthatcaring,thatdetermineswhetherornottheywillbeseenasdemonstratingResearcherswhotakeastakeholderapproachtostrategicmanagementvieworgani-zationsasbeingcomposedofvariousconstituencies,allofwhichhavealegitimatestakeintheorganizationandcontributetoitssuccess(Freeman,1984).Withinthefactor,wendthatleadersmustdemonstrateanacuteawarenessandconcernfortheimpactoftheirdecisionsandactionsonveprimarystakeholdergroups:teammembers,andthecommunity.Thebestleadersarecommittedto,andparticularlygoodat,knowing,understanding,andeffectivelybalancingtheoftencon-ictingneedsandwantsofvariousstakeholders.Takentogether,ourresearchandexperiencesuggestthatthesefourcommitmentsofferanalternativeviewofmotivationinexecutiveleadership.TheCommitmenttoLeadSPECIALISSUE deneswhatwebelieveworthyleadersshouldwanttodo,orcareabout,intangibleways,thatwillleadtogreatereffectiveness.TheCharactertoLeadWebelievethatforleadershiptomovefrombeingsimplyeffective(whichrequiressufcientlevelsof)tobeingtrulyworthy,leadersalsoneedtheintegrity,courage,andhumilitytoearnandmaintainstakeholdertrustandtobeaccount-able.Wecallthis,TheCharactertoLeadAswelookedatclientles,reviewedCongressionaltestimonyoncorporatefailures,andfollowedhigh-prolelegalproceedings,wenotedthepresenceorabsenceofcertainbehaviorscontributingtotheirsuccesseswereoftenmarkedlydifferentthanthebehaviorscontributingtotheirfailures.Theexecutiveswhofailedcatastrophicallydidnotdisplaymanyofthepositivebehaviorsthatwereultimatelyincludedintheandwereseenas“lowincharacter.”Wealsoobservedthatpeopleweremuchmorelikelytowanttofollowthoseexecutiveswhowereseenas“highincharacter.”Researchsupportingthisobservationsuggeststhatpeoplearemoresatisedwithleaderswhodemonstratehighcharacter(Brown,Trevino,&Harrison,2005).Thisresearchalsosuggeststhatpeoplearelikelytoputmorediscretionaryeffortintotheirjobswhentheyareworkingforhigh-characterleaders.TheCharactertoLeadisthethirdandnalconstructofTheWorthyLeadershipItencompassesthreemultidimensionalfactors:PersonalIntegrityandEthicsOrganizationalIntegrityandCourage,andHumility,Gratitude,andForgiveness.PersonalIntegrityandEthics(PIE)Therstfactor,,isfundamentaltoleadership.IntegrityhasbeenfoundtoberelatedtoperceptionsofCEOsuccess(Wood&Vilkinas,2007),perceptionsoforgani-zationalbottom-lineeffectiveness(Parry&Procter-Thompson,2002),andemployees’jobsatisfaction(Vitell&Davis,1990).WhenKouzesandPosner(2004)askedwhatchar-acteristicspeoplelookedforinleaderswhosedirectiontheywouldwillinglyfollowandadmire,88%indicatedhonesty(i.e.,apersonworthyoftrustanddemonstratingconsis-tencybetweenwordanddeed).Notsurprisingly,therstdimensionofpersonalintegrity,itself,andempha-sizesconsistency—betweenvaluesandwords,andwordsandbehaviors.Acolloquialismmightbethatleaderswithhighpersonalintegrity,“lettheiryesbeyes,theirnobeno,andiftheychangetheirminds,theyletothersknow.”Fromthefollower’sperspective,personalintegritycanbedamagedbysmallmissteps(e.g.,promisesandcommitmentsnotkept,schedulingameetingandnotattending,sayingonethinganddoinganother),orbigevents(e.g.,duciarybreach,sexualharassment).Breechesofeithertypecanseriouslyerodetrustandcredibility,andaccumulatetoactualdishonestyandpersonalfailure(Dotlich&Cairo,2003).TheseconddimensionofAtthemostbasiclevel,leadersmustunderstandthedifferencebetweenrightandwrong,bewillingtoaddressethicaldilem-mas,andholdthemselvesandothersaccountabletohighstandardsofprofessionalandorganizationalethics.Inonestudy,20highrankingexecutives(90%ofwhomhadexperienceinC-levelpositions)wereinterviewedonthetopicofethicalleadership(Trevino,Brown,&Hartman,2003).Theconsensusoftheseleaderswasthatexecutives376THOMPSON,GRAHEK,PHILLIPS,ANDFAY needabroadethicalawarenesstobeeffectiveandawillingnesstooperateinthelightofday(evenbeingcomfortablehavingtheiractionsjudgedinthedailynewspaper).Leadersalsoneedtobewillingtoserveasvisiblerole-modelsofethicalleadership.BadaraccoandWebb(1995)asked30youngmanagerswhatorwhosettheethicalstandardsandculturesoftheirorganizations.Thesemanagerslargelyagreedthattheactionsofleadership,ratherthancorporatepronouncementsorformalethicsprograms,determinedthestandardsofacceptablebehaviorandculture.Thesemanagersalsostatedtheyweremorelikelytobelieveintheethicalcodesoftheirorganizationsiftheysawthemenforced.Thenaldimensionof.Leaderswithintegrityopenlyshareinfor-mation(asappropriate),maketheirthinkingavailabletoothers,andencouragebroadparticipationindecisionsandactions.Whenpeopledonotknowthemindsoftheirleaders,theyarelesslikelytotrustthem(Kouzes&Posner,1993).OrganizationalIntegrityandCourage(OIC)emphasizesleadersholdingthemselvesaccountableforactinginaccordancewiththeirpersonalvaluesandcommitments,emphasizestheneedforleaderstoenforcetheirorganizations’statedvaluesandethics.Thisalsomeanscourageouslyensuringthatpowerisappropriatelymanagedandbalanced.TheSpecialInvestigativeCommitteehearingsoftheBoardofDirectorsofEnronCorp(InvestigationofBoardofDirectorsofEnronCorporation,CommitteeonFinancialServices,U.S.H.R.,2002)highlightedwhatcanhappenwhenislacking.Leadinvestigator,WilliamPowers,testied,“Thetragicconsequencesoftherelatedpartytransactionsandaccountingerrorsweretheresultsoffailuresatmanylevelsandbymanypeople.”Hefurthercommented,“Wheneverthismanythingsgowrong,itisnotjusttheactofoneortwopeople.”Heconcluded,“...therewasafundamentaldefaultofleadershipandmanagement.”Therstdimensionoforganizationalintegrity.Itrequiresleaderstodevelopasystemofchecksandbalancestoenforcetheethicalstandardsandpoliciesoftheorganization.Thecostsofnotdoingsocanbesubstantial.TheHiddenCostsofUnethical(TheJosephsonInstitute,2004)reportedthatunethicalbehaviorharmssalesandstockprice,worsenstherisksassociatedwithscandal,andcanleadtocivilcharges,criminalcharges,indeliblestains,andbankruptcy.Italsodecreasesproductivityandefciency,whereasincreasingmisconduct,conict,employeeabsenteeism,andturnover.TheseconddimensionofIttakescouragetostepupandholdtheorganizationaccountablefordoingwhatitsaysitisgoingtodo—orwhatitSayingwhatneedstobesaid,makingunpopulardecisions,andthenmodeling,recogniz-ing,andrewardingappropriatecourageinothersbringsorganizationalintegritytolife.Doingsorequiresdealingwithone’sownfear.Woodward(2004)proposedthatfear,infact,isaprerequisiteforcourage.Reardon(2007)talkedaboutcourageasaskill.Skillfulcourageiscarefulandmindful.Thegoalforistohavethegreatestimpactwhilethoughtfullyandmindfullydealingwithimportantissues.Itisnotjust“whistle-blowing,”butfullyparticipatingintheorganizationtomakeitmoreconsistentandeffective.Thethirddimensionof.Executives,bytheverynatureoftheirroles,haveenormouspowertosetdirection,makedecisions,allocateresources,andinuencecareers.Wecontendthatworthyleadershiprequiresanequitable,fair,andresponsibleapproachto(anduseof)power.Researchndsthatleaderswhoaremoreapttorelyuponpersonalsourcesofpower[e.g.,FrenchandRaven’s(1959)expertandreferentpower]seebetterperformancefromtheirfollowers(Podsakoff&Schriesheim,1985).ParticipativeorSPECIALISSUE democraticleadershipstylesareoftenrelatedtofollowersatisfactionandproductivity(Bass,1990).Thesestylesaremarkedbyatendencytosharepoweranddecision-makingresponsibility,andtheminimaluseofpunishmentandcoercion.,inthiscontext,alsorelatestousingpowertoappropriatelyprotectandsupportothers.Humility,Gratitude,andForgiveness(HGF)Weseethethreecomponentsofasinterrelatedltersthroughwhichleaderstendtoseethemselves,work,andthepeoplearoundthem.Theselterstendtobepowerfulinuencesonleaders’day-to-dayinteractions.Theyinformtheirdecisions,andmayheavilyimpacttheirabilitytoattractloyalandwillingfollowers.Ourpreliminaryresearchandexperiencehasfoundthatthedimensionsofarealsobehavioralandmeasurable.Therstdimensionof.Itreferstohavingareasonableviewofoneself—andanaccurateunderstandingandacceptanceofone’sstrengthsanddevelop-mentopportunities.meansrepresentingcontributionsaccurately,acceptingpraisegraciously,andshowingsincereappreciationtoothers.Wendthatleaderswhoareappropriatelyproudoftheiraccomplishmentsandhaveself-condence;buttheyarenotarrogant.Theyfundamentallydonotseethemselvesasbetterthanothers.TheseconddimensionofItreferstohavingaprimarylifeorientationthatsays,“I’mgoingtocelebratewhat’sgoodandbegratefulforwhatIhave,whoIam,andwhereIaminlife.”Wearenotsuggestingaleadershouldnotbeambitiousoraspiretowanttodomore,contributemore,orchangetheworld.However,wearesuggestingthata“cuphalffull”philosophyisoftentimesmoreadaptivethantheinverse.Thisgoesastepbeyondoptimism.alsoemphasizesshowingotherssincerepersonalappreciationfortheircontributions.Researchshowsthatindividualswhodem-onstrategratitudearefoundtobemorepositive,happy,andsatisedwithlife(McCul-lough,Tsang,&Emmons,2004).Theyalsoreportfewernegativehealthsymptomsandtheabilitytosleepbetter(Emmons&McCullough,2003).Webelieveleaderswhodemonstrategratitudehaveamorepositiveinuenceontheirorganizationsandothers,thanleaderswhooperatefromaperspectiveofdeciencyor“what’swrong.”Thenaldimensionof.Someleadersgetoffendedquickly,andforgiveothersslowly,whichultimatelyfostersanenvironmentofvindictivenessandfear.Theabilitytoforgiveislinkedtomultiplepositiveoutcomes.Peopletaughttheskillsofforgivenessseebenetsincludingincreasedwell-beingovertimeandadecreaseinperceivedstressandphysicalhealthsymptoms(Harris,Luskin,Norman,Standard,Brun-ing,Evans,&Thoresen,2006).Forgivenesshasalsobeenassociatedwithincreasedimmuneandcardiovascularfunctioning,theneedforfewermedications,andlesscon-sumptionofalcohol(Bono,McCullough,&Root,2008;Lawler-Row,Karremans,Scott,Edlis-Matityahou,&Edwards,2008).Severalleadersinourreviewcouldnotforgiveotherseasily,andasaresultexperiencedhealthandjudgmentshortfallsthatmateriallycontributedtotheirdownfalls.Ourexperiencesuggeststhatwhileleadersneedtoholdpeopleaccountable,theyalsoneedtobewillingtoforgiveandmoveforwardwithoutTakentogether,TheCharactertoLeadmaydepartfromhowwetraditionallyassessleadershippotential,performance,andsuccess.Unfortunately,researchonthesefactorsintherealmofleadershipisgenerallylacking.However,weincreasinglybelievethatisaprotectivefactorthathelpsindividualsandorganizationsavoidcatastrophicfailures,aswellasbolsterstrongfollowership.pointsthewaytounderstandingwhataleaderwilldoacrossavarietyofleadershipcontexts.378THOMPSON,GRAHEK,PHILLIPS,ANDFAY SummaryandImplicationsforConsultingPsychologistsWehavebrieypresentedathree-construct,12-factormodelofexecutiveperformanceconstitutingwhatwelabelworthyleadership(i.e.,leading,acting,orguidinginawaythathasgreatmerit,character,andvalue).Theneedforthemodelwasinitiallydrivenbytheobservationthatmanyhighlytalentedexecutiveswerecontributingto,ifnotactuallycausing,thecatastrophicfailuresoftheirorganizationsanddestructionoftheirowncareers.Itwasderivedfromlookingdeeplyatanumberoftheseexecutivesandtheirorganizations,formallyinterviewingCEOsandothertopleaders,andreviewingleader-shipresearch.Wefoundwhatwebelievetobethreecriticalconstructsofleadership.Ofthethreeconstructs,wefoundthathasbeenwellresearchedandislikelythestrongestpredictorofexecutivesuccess.Wealsofoundthatisessentialtoexecutivesuccess,butalsohelpsbegintoexplainmanyseriousleadershipfailures.Finally,wefoundthat,especiallywhenroundedoutwithnewerelementssuchasnizationalIntegrityandCourageHumility,Gratitude,andForgiveness,warrantssignicantlymoreattentionintheeldofconsultingpsychology.Althoughleadershipresearchonislacking,itappearstousclearlylinkedtobothindividualandorganizationalsuccessandfailure.Werecognize,ofcourse,thatwehavemadesignicantleapsoffaithinwhathasbeenpresented.WealsorecognizethatthereisanenormousamountofworkyettobedonetoeshoutthedetailsofTheWorthyLeadershipModel,anditsreliability,validity,andefcacy.Therearenumerousobviousquestions,suchas:Canweempiricallysupportthepresenceandorganizationofthethreeconstructs,12factors,and32dimensionsincludedinthemodel?Areallthevariablesnecessary,ofequalweight,and/orcompensatingwhenpredictingthelikelihoodofsuccessorfailure?Cantheconstructs,factors,and/ordimen-sionsbereliablyandvalidlymeasured,andifso,dotheresultsdifferentiateeffectivefromineffectiveperformance?Ourpreliminaryempiricaltestsofthemodelwithexecutiveanddirector-levelclientassessmentdataappearsverypromising,andwillbethefocusofournextarticle.WearealsoencouragedthatBoardsofDirectors,seniorexecutives,andotherleaderswhohavebeenexposedtothemodelhavebeenverypositiveaboutitandndthatitringstruetothem.Itisprovidingthemadditionalinformationtohelpselectleaders,assembledevelopmentprograms,andbetterunderstandsomethingascomplexastheprocessofleadership,itself.Finally,weacknowledgethatwearefundamentallypractitioners.Assuch,wearefocusedonhelpingrealclientsmakecriticaldecisions.WeareclearlyencouragedbytheapparentpotentialofTheWorthyLeadershipModeltohelpourclients.Wealsoencourageotherconsultingpsychologiststoconsideritsattributeswhenhelpingtheirclientsidentify,select,anddevelopexecutives.Ashford,S.J.,&Black,J.S.(1996).Proactivityduringorganizationalentry:TheroleofdesireforJournalofAppliedPsychology,81,199–214.Badaracco,J.L.,&Webb,A.P.(1995).Businessethics:Aviewfromthetrenches.ManagementReview,37,8–28.Bass,B.M.(1985).Leadershipandperformancebeyondexpectations.NewYork:FreePress.Bass,B.M.(1990).Bass&StogdillÕshandbookofleadership.NewYork:TheFreePress.SPECIALISSUE 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