Topic 6: Measurement and evaluation of human performance - PowerPoint Presentation

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Topic 6: Measurement and evaluation of human performance

6.1 Statistical Analysis

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Topic 6: Measurement of human performance

Why do we want to measure human performance?

When we measure it, how do we analyze and use the information?

Chapter 6 is teaching you how to gather data, how to design a fitness test, and how to assess different studies

First - we need to understand all of the statistical terms and types of measurement techniques

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6.1.1 Outline that error bars are a graphical representation of the variability of data

6.1.3 State that the statistic standard deviation is used to summarize the spread of values around the mean

Standard Deviation

The spread of scores around the mean or average

When the data are normally distributed, about 68% of all values will lie within +/- 1 standard deviation while 95% will be within +/- 2 standard deviations

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6.1.1 Outline that error bars are a graphical representation of the variability of data

Error bars

A graphic representation of the

variability

of data

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6.1.2 Calculate the mean and standard deviation of a set of values

Mean= Average

Standard Deviation

Calculate using a calculator! Do not need to remember formula

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6.1.4 Explain how the standard deviation is useful for comparing the means and the spread of data between two or

more samples

A small standard deviation indicates that the data is clustered closely around the mean value

Conversely, a large standard deviation indicates a wider spread around the mean

ADD MORE – RELATE TO REAL FINDINGS

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6.1.5 Outline the meaning of coefficient of variation

Coefficient of Variation

Denoted by the letter V

It is the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean expressed as a percentage

By calculating the coefficient of variation you are seeing what percent of your results are equal to the mean of the data

Provides similar information to SD but since it is expressed as a % it is easier for people to understand

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6.1.5 Outline the meaning of coefficient of variation

Coefficient of Variation

Useful statistic for comparing the degree of variation from one series to another, even if the means are drastically even one another

You can compare data sets when the units are different

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PracticeCalculating Mean, Standard Deviation and Coefficient of Variation

with Mary and

Roisin

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6.1.6 Deduce the significance between two sets of data using calculated values for t and the appropriate tables

The t test (also called Student’s T Test) compares two 

averages 

(

means

) and tells you if they are different from each other. The t test also tells you how significant the differences are; In other words it lets you know if those differences could have happened by chanceFor the t test to be applied, ideally the data should have a normal distribution and a sample size of at least 10Statisticshowto.com

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6.1.6 Deduce the significance between two sets of data using calculated values for t and the appropriate tables

A very simple example:

 Let’s say you have a cold and you try a naturopathic remedy. Your cold lasts a couple of days. The next time you have a cold, you buy an over-the-counter pharmaceutical and the cold lasts a week. You survey your friends and they all tell you that their colds were of a shorter duration (an 

average 

of 3 days) when they took the homeopathic remedy. What you 

really want to know is, are these results repeatable? A t test can tell you by comparing the means of the two groups and letting you know the probability of those results happening by chance.Another example: Student’s T-tests can be used in real life to compare means. For example, a drug company may want to test a new cancer drug to find out if it improves life expectancy. In an experiment, there’s always a control group (a group who are given a placebo, or “sugar pill”). The control group may show an average life expectancy of +5 years, while the group taking the new drug might have a life expectancy of +6 years. It would seem that the drug might work. But it could be due to a fluke. To test this, researchers would use a Student’s t-test to find out if the results are repeatable for an entire population.

Statisticshowto.com

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6.1.6 Deduce the significance between two sets of data using calculated values for t and the appropriate tables

If you want to use the tables to determine p-value using a t-test, you must know the degrees of freedom

Paired t-test

–

degrees of freedom is one less than your

nUse this when the same people are tested Unpaired t-test – degrees of freedom is two less than nStatisticshowto.com

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6.1.7 Explain that the existence of a correlation does not establish that there is a causal relationship between two variables

Correlation tells us if there is a relationship (or correlation) between two things

i.e.

–

is there a correlation between athletes’ ages and times for the 5000 meters

We do this by calculating the r and r2 values

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6.2 Study Design

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6.2.1 Outline the importance of specificity, accuracy, reliability and validity with regard to fitness testing

What are the main factors involved in ensuring that we are correctly measuring an individual’s fitness level?

Specificity

Accuracy

Reliability

Validity

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6.2.1 Outline the importance of specificity, accuracy, reliability and validity with regard to fitness testing

Specificity

Is the test you are choosing specific to the sport/activity in which the person participates?

Question

– would a 1-mile timed running test be a specific test to assess strength in a power lifter?

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6.2.1 Outline the importance of specificity, accuracy, reliability and validity with regard to fitness testing

Accuracy

Is the equipment we are using to test the participant calibrated for accuracy?

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6.2.1 Outline the importance of specificity, accuracy, reliability and validity with regard to fitness testing

Reliability?

“The degree to which a measure would produce the same result from one occasion to another”

Inter

and

Intra rater reliabilityTests can be unreliable when there is a learning or habituation effectIf this occurs, you may need practice sessions to allow participants learn task fully – reach the point where they can get no better

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6.2.1 Outline the importance of specificity, accuracy, reliability and validity with regard to fitness testing

Validity

Does the test measure what it claims to measure?

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Choose a sport or physical activity and devise a specific, accurate and valid test of overall performance of one aspect of performance. How would you test reliability?

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6.2.2 Discuss the importance of study design in the context of the sports, exercise and health sciences

What factors should you take into account when designing sport and exercise science experiments?

Control Groups

Randomization

Placebos

Blinding and Double BlindingStatistical Analysis

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6.2.2 Discuss the importance of study design in the context of the sports, exercise and health sciences

Control Group

The 

control group

 is defined as the 

group in an experiment or study that does not receive treatment by the researchers and is then used as a benchmark to measure how the other tested subjects do

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6.2.2 Discuss the importance of study design in the context of the sports, exercise and health sciences

Placebo

A substance that has no therapeutic effect, used as a control in testing new drugs

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6.2.2 Discuss the importance of study design in the context of the sports, exercise and health sciences

Randomization

A method based on chance alone by which study participants are assigned to a treatment group 

Randomization

minimizes the differences among groups by equally distributing people with particular characteristics among all the trial arms. The researchers do not know which treatment is better

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6.2.2 Discuss the importance of study design in the context of the sports, exercise and health sciences

Blinding and Double Blinding

Blinding

An 

RCT

 may be blinded, (also called "masked") by "procedures that prevent study participants, caregivers, or outcome assessors from knowing which intervention was receivedDouble BlindingA double-blind study is one in which neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving a particular treatment. This procedure is utilized to prevent 

bias in research results. Double-blind studies are particularly useful for preventing bias due to demand characteristics or the placebo effect

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Study Design – pre and post test – discussion of caffeine example from book

Cause and Effect Experiment

Question

– Does taking caffeine tablets have an effect on starting time in a 100 meter race?Design

– Pretest----Treatment (caffeine ingestion)----Post TestProblems with this experimental design??

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Study Design – pre and post test – discussion of caffeine example from book

Cause and Effect Experiment

How do you overcome learning/habituation problem

–

use control groupExperimental group---Pre-Test----Treatment (caffeine)----Post-Test

Control group----------Pre-Test----No treatment------------Post-TestProblems with this design?

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Study Design – pre and post test – discussion of caffeine example from book

Cause and Effect Experiment

Experimental group----Pre-Test----Treatment (caffeine)---Post Test

Control group----Pre-Test-----Treatment (placebo)----Post Test

Problems??

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Study Design – pre and post test – discussion of caffeine example from book

Cause and Effect Experiment

Blinding and Randomization

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Come up with your own cause and effect experiment

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6.2.3 Outline the importance of the PAR-Q

What is the Par-Q

Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire

is a screening tool used to determine if participating in physical activity of physical tests will put their health or life at risk

If the person answers “No” to all questions then they can continue with physical activity

If they answer ”Yes” to one or more questions they must see their doctor before undertaking any physical tests, training programs or sports

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6.2.4 Evaluate field, laboratory, sub-maximal and maximal tests of human performance

So, you’ve determined your client is healthy enough to undertake testing (due to normal PAR-Q) – now which test or tests of fitness do we use?

Remember the criteria outlined earlier with regard to testing – are the tests

Specific

Accurate

ReliableValid

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6.2.4 Evaluate field, laboratory, sub-maximal and maximal tests of human performance

First thing – decide what you want to test

i.e. – you want to know what someone’s VO2 max is

Laboratory tests

are the best – is the lab available?

If not, may need to use a field test instead such as bleep test or Cooper’s 12-minute run testNot as accurate or reliable but may be only thing that is available

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6.2.4 Evaluate field, laboratory, sub-maximal and maximal tests of human performance

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6.2.4 Evaluate field, laboratory, sub-maximal and maximal tests of human performance

Maximal test

We want to know the maximal amount a person can do (i.e. VO2 max or maximal weight they can lift) – carrying out a maximal test meets all of the criteria

Sub-maximal tests

Used if you think a person will not be able to complete the max test – Maximal number is calculated based on

submax resultsExample – Bruce Protocol and Modified Bruce Protocol

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6.2.4 Evaluate field, laboratory, sub-maximal and maximal tests of human performance

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6.3 Components of fitness

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6.3.1 Distinguish between the concepts of health-related fitness

and

performance-related (skill-related) fitness

Health-related fitness

Definition

: an individual’s physical ability to maintain health and perform activities of daily livingConsists of:Body compositionCardio-respiratory fitness (aerobic capacity)FlexibilityMuscular enduranceStrength

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6.3.1 Distinguish between the concepts of health-related fitness

and

performance-related (skill-related) fitness

Performance-related fitness

Definition

: an individual’s physical ability to perform in a specific sportConsists of:AgilityBalanceCoordinationPowerReaction time

Speed

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6.3.1 Distinguish between the concepts of health-related fitness

and

performance-related (skill-related) fitness

Note

: Some components of performance-related fitness (agility, balance, coordination) could become health-related for certain groups such as the elderly and those suffering from

hypokinetic diseasesA disease brought on, at least in part, by insufficient movement and exercise. Hypokinesis has been identified as an independent risk factor for the origin and progression of several widespread chronic diseases, including coronary heart disease, diabetes, obesity, and lower back pain

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Health-Related Fitness

Body composition

Proportion of an individual’s

total body mass

that is made up of

fat and fat-free massTotal body mass is easy to assess – is therefore often measured and interpreted in relation to health and sports performance – in both contexts what makes up this total body mass is actually more importantBody fat mass – essential fat found in tissues and organs as stored fatFree fat mass – what makes up the rest of the total body mass

– muscle, water and bone

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Body Composition

Excess body fat, when located centrally around the abdomen, is associated with chronic conditions including hypertension, metabolic syndrome, Type 2 diabetes mellitus, stroke, cardiovascular disease, and dyslipidemia

Approximately 2/3 of American adults are classified as overweight or obese (BMI > or = 25kg.) and more than 1/3 are classified as obese (BMI > or = 30kg)

Norms

Men

– 10-22%Women 20-32%

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Body Composition

How do you assess Body Composition

?

Hydrostatic Weighing

Anthropometric MeasurementsSkinfold and Girth MeasurementsBMI

Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis

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Body Composition

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Health-Related Fitness

Cardio-respiratory fitness (aerobic capacity)

Ability to take in, deliver and use oxygen

Most commonly characterized by individual’s

maximal oxygen uptake

– VO2Max – which is the maximal rate that oxygen can be used during maximal exerciseAlso referred to as aerobic capacityCardio-respiratory fitness is limited by the limits of the cardiovascular and ventilatory systems to take O2 from the atmosphere, deliver to tissues and use it

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Health-Related Fitness

Cardio-respiratory fitness (aerobic capacity)

Cardiorespiratory fitness is important for health and sport because:

Low-levels of CV fitness are associated with many disease states and an association with a shorter lifespan

With impaired CV system, only low intensities of physical activity can be tolerated before anaerobic systems kick in

– and they are less sustainableIn contrast, high levels of CV fitness enable much higher duration and intensity of physical fitness

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Cardio-respiratory Fitness

How do we assess this

?

Open Circuit

Spirometry/Indirect CalorimetrySubject breathes through valve with nose occluded, while pulmonary ventilation and expired fractions of O2 and CO2 are measured

Gold Standard Laboratory TestMax Test

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Cardio-respiratory Fitness

What if these aren’t available?

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Cardio-respiratory Fitness

Can use:

Field Tests

Cooper 12-minute test

Rockport One-Mile Fitness Walking testSubmax

Exercise TestsCycle Ergometer Tests (Astrand-Rhyming)Treadmill Test (Modified Bruce Protocol)Step Test (Harvard Step Test)

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Health-Related Fitness

Flexibility

Ability to move through the full range of motion around a joint

Limited by multiple factors:

Capacity of muscles and tendons to stretch

Ligament conditionJoint mechanicsSize and shape of bones

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Flexibility

How do we assess

?

Range of Motion Norms

– goniometerSit and Reach Test

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Health-Related Fitness

Muscular endurance

The ability of a muscle or muscle group maintain force or power

Also described as fatigue-resistance

Typically, local muscular endurance is mostly related to the availability of substrates, enzyme activity and build-up of metabolites, although nervous system plays a very important role

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Muscular Endurance

How do we assess

?

Push-Up Test

Curl-Up Test

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Health-Related Fitness

Strength

Ability to generate force by a muscle or muscle group

Dependent on

Muscle mass that is available (volume and fiber type)

Ability to activate the muscle massCoordination of muscle activityOverall, the interaction of neural and muscular systems

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Strength

Ways to Assess?

Hand-held dynamometer

Grip strength dynamometer

1-RM, 5-10RM

Bench or shoulder press, leg press or knee extension

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Performance-related fitness

Agility

Ability to rapidly change direction or speed

What controls agility is very complex

Includes factors including strength, power, speed, flexibility, balance, peripheral vision, anticipation and experience

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Agility

Ways to assess?

Illinois Agility Test

5-0-5 Agility Test

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Performance-related fitness

Balance

Refers to the stability of the body

To maintain balance the center of gravity needs to be maintained above the supporting base of the body

Achieved through coordinated contraction and relaxation of postural muscles in response to positional changes

Positional changes are detected by visual, vestibular and proprioceptive processesInput from these systems stimulate coordinated muscular responses in order to maintain balance

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Balance

How to assess?

Stork Stand

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Performance-related fitness

Coordination

The ability to move two or more body parts under control, smoothly and efficiently

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Coordination

How to assess

?

Hand Ball Toss

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Performance-related fitness

Power

Defined as the rate of doing work

Functionally, it represents the combination of force and velocity or strength and speed

High forces = strength

Low forces = speedOften seen as one of the most important determinants of sporting performance

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Power

How to assess

?

Vertical Jump

Standing broad Jump

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Performance-related fitness

Reaction time

Duration between the presentation of a stimulus and the associated response

Depends on integration of the neuromuscular systems

Reflects

:Combination of detecting sensory informationProcessing this informationSending a responseEffecting this response

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Reaction Time

How to assess

?

Drop Test

Computer simulation

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Performance-related fitness

Speed

Change of distance with respect to time when movement occurs

Could refer to whole-body speed or speed of a particular joint or muscle group

Determined by interactions of biomechanics and physiology

Speed has more relevance for performance-related fitness than health-related fitness

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Speed

How to assess

?

40 meter sprint

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Why is fitness assessed?

Health assessment

–

what can it show us?

Primarily used to evaluate health and identify weaknesses relative to healthy “norms”Can assist with diagnosis, assessment of severity and prognosisTesting can monitor progress with interventions, assist with education of participants/patients, and design individual training programs

Performance assessment – what can it show us?Same as above plusProvide feedback to athletesPredict performance potentialEstablish goals for athletes to work towards

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6.3.3 Outline and evaluate a variety of fitness tests

Tests for Aerobic Capacity

Multistage fitness test/Bleep test (Leger test)

Cooper’s 12-minute run

Harvard step test

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6.3.3 Outline and evaluate a variety of fitness tests

Multistage fitness test/Bleep test (Leger test)

Description of test

Participants perform repeated 20-meter shuttles at progressively increasing speeds until exhaustion is reached

First level is at low intensity

Approx. each minute the frequency of the sounds increases to next level, causing an increase in running speedPerformance in the test is described as the level reached and the number of completed shuttles in that level before participant voluntarily stops or fails to keep paceScore is compared against a reference table where an estimate of VO2 max can be obtainedHigher score corresponds with higher VO2 max

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6.3.3 Outline and evaluate a variety of fitness tests

Multistage fitness test/Bleep test (Leger test)

Advantages

Limitations

Limited experience

and equipment needed

Prediction based on performance and not direct measurementMaximal test (not a sub-maximal prediction), so similar to gold standardMaximal test (safety and ethical

considerations, as well as importance of motivationEasy to scoreEnvironmental factors influence performance as not in laboratoryLarge numbers can be tested

at once in a short time

Score is known by participants and previous scores or target scores may impact on performance

The protocol is stop-start in nature, compared to continuous in the gold standard

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6.3.3 Outline and evaluate a variety of fitness tests

Multistage fitness test/Bleep test (Leger test)

Reliability and Validity

?

Shown to be reliable with healthy adults in sports teamsProvided test is carefully standardized and reasonably accurate for estimation of VO2 max

Sensitive to training improvements, i.e. improvements in score will indicate improvement in aerobic fitnessFor other populations alternative data are requiredNot appropriate for people with pre-existing medical conditions

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6.3.3 Outline and evaluate a variety of fitness tests

Cooper’s 12-minute run

Participants run/walk as far as they can in a period of 12 minutes

Total distance is entered into an equation to estimate VO2 max

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6.3.3 Outline and evaluate a variety of fitness tests

Cooper’s 12-minute run

Advantages

Limitations

Limited experience and equipment needed

Prediction based on performance and not direct measurement

Maximal test (not a sub-maximal prediction) with continuous exerciseMaximal test (safety and ethical considerations, as well as importance of motivation)

Easy to scoreEnvironmental factors influence performance as not in laboratoryLarge numbers can be tested at once in a short timeThe protocol is not progressive in nature and therefore pacing will be a key factor

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6.3.3 Outline and evaluate a variety of fitness tests

Cooper’s 12-minute run

Similar to the MSFT test, Cooper’s is widely used in non-clinical populations and same limitations apply

Since the protocol is continuous and self-paced, participants are more comfortable with the test and may perform better than the MSFT

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6.3.3 Outline and evaluate a variety of fitness tests

Harvard Step Test

Participants are required to step on an off a step (45 cm high) at a rate of 30 steps each minute for 5 minutes making a total of 150 steps completed

The heart rate of the participant is then measured at the 1

st

, 2nd, and 3rd minutes of recovery following completion of the testEquation uses the total of these three heart rate values to estimate VO2 max , based on the association of a lower heart rate (and faster recovery) at a fixed intensity with higher VO2 max

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6.3.3 Outline and evaluate a variety of fitness tests

Harvard Step Test

Advantage

–

does not require participants to exercise maximally, making it safer to conduct on a wide variety of participantsLess accurate unless alternative equations are used for differing populations

This test is more suitable for assessment of health-related fitness than sport-related fitness

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6.3.3 Outline and evaluate a variety of fitness tests

Harvard Step Test

Advantages

Limitations

Limited expertise and equipment needed

Prediction based on heart rate values

Sub-maximal test (suitable for more participants) with continuous exerciseDoes not account for individual variation in heart rate (not training-related)

The test is based on physiological findings and not performance (pacing and motivation will not affect the results)Heart rate needs to be measured accurately, as small differences will impact on the result

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6.3.3 Outline and evaluate a variety of fitness tests

Body Composition

BMI, anthropometry and underwater weighing

Flexibility

The Sit-and-Reach TestMuscle EnduranceMaximum sit ups, maximum push ups, flexed arm hang

AgilityThe Illinois agility testStrengthThe handgrip test using a handgrip dynamometerSpeedThe 40 meter sprintBalanceThe standing stork testReaction time

The ruler drop test Also look at computer-based tests of reaction timePowerVertical jump and standing broad jumpIN CLASS ASSIGNMENT

– EVALUATION OF OTHER FITNESS TESTS