Intelligence PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers - PowerPoint Presentation

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Intelligence

PSYCHOLOGY

David G. Myers C. Nathan DeWall Twelfth Edition

Chapter 10

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Chapter Overview

What Is Intelligence?Assessing IntelligenceThe Dynamics of IntelligenceGenetics and Environmental Influences on Intelligence

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What Is Intelligence? (part 1)

Intelligence: The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.Spearman’s general intelligence (g)Humans have one general intelligence that is at the heart of everything a person does.Mental abilities are like physical abilities.Intelligence involves distinct abilities, which correlate enough to define a small general intelligence factor.Gardner and Sternberg discount this theory and propose several different kinds of intelligence.

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What Is Intelligence? (part 2)

Thurstone’s responseFifty-six different tests mathematically identified seven clusters of primary mental abilities.Scoring well on one cluster was generally matched by high scores on other clusters, providing some evidence of g.Distinct brain networks enable distinct abilities, with g explained by their coordinated activity(Cole et al., 2015; Hampshire et al., 2012).A chorus of actions are orchestrated through the best possible distribution of mental resources (Carroll & Bright, 2016; Lee et al., 2015).

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Theories of Multiple Intelligences (part 1)

Gardner’s multiple intelligencesIntelligence consists of multiple abilities that come in different packages.Eight relatively independent intelligences exist, including the verbal and mathematical aptitudes assessed by standard tests.Evidence of multiple intelligences is found in people with savant syndrome and autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

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Theories of Multiple Intelligences (part 2)

Sternberg’s three intelligencesAnalytical intelligence (school smarts): Traditional academic problem solvingCreative intelligence (trailblazing smarts): Ability to generate novel ideasPractical intelligence (street smarts): Skill at handling everyday tasks

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Gardner and Sternberg

DifferencesGardner identified eight relatively independent intelligences and views these intelligence domains as differentiated multiple abilities.Sternberg agrees with the concept of multiple intelligences, but proposes three intelligences.AgreementMultiple abilities contribute to life successes.Different varieties of giftedness provide educational challenges for education.

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Criticism of Multiple Intelligences Theories

Factor analysis confirms the existence of g, which predicts performance on a variety of complex tasks.Success is more than high intelligence; highly successful people are also conscientious, well connected, and energetic.Researchers report a 10-year rule: Expert performers spend about a decade in intense, daily practice.

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Smart and Rich?

Jay Zagorsky (2007) tracked 7403 participants in the U.S. National Longitudinal Survey of Youth for 25 years. Their intelligence scores showed a moderate positive correlation (+30) with their later income.

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Emotional Intelligence

Four componentsPerceiving emotions: Recognizing them in faces, music, and storiesUnderstanding emotions: Predicting them and how they may change and blendManaging emotions: Knowing how to express them in varied situationsUsing emotions: To enable adaptive or creative thinking

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Comparing Theories of Intelligence

TheorySummary

StrengthsOther ConsiderationsSpearman’s general intelligence (g)

A basic intelligence predicts our abilities in varied academic areas.

Different abilities, such as verbal and spatial, do have some tendency to correlate.

Human abilities are too diverse to be encapsulated by a single general intelligence factor.

Thurstone’s

primary mental abilities

Our intelligence may be broken down into seven distinct factors.

A single

g

score is not as informative as scores for seven primary mental abilities.

Even

Thurstone’s

seven mental abilities show a tendency to cluster, suggesting an underlying

g

factor.

Gardner’s multiple intelligences

Our abilities are best classified into eight or nine independent intelligences, which include a broad range of skills beyond traditional school smarts.

Intelligence is more than just verbal and mathematical skills. Other abilities are equally important to our human adaptability.

Should all our abilities be considered

intelligences?

Shouldn’t some be called less vital

talents?

Sternberg’s triarchic theory

Our intelligence is best classified into three areas that predict real-world success: analytical, creative, and practical.

These three domains can be reliably measured.

These three domains may be less independent than Sternberg thought and may actually share an underlying

g

factor.

Emotional intelligence

Social intelligence is an important indicator of life success. Emotional intelligence is a key aspect, consisting of perceiving, understanding, managing, and using emotions.

These four components predict social success and emotional well-being.

Does this stretch the concept of intelligence too far?

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Assessing Intelligence

A Few Definitions of TestsIntelligence test: Method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others using numerical scoresAptitude test: Designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learnAchievement test: Designed to assess what a person has learned

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Close Cousins: Aptitude and Intelligence Scores

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Early and Modern Tests of Mental Abilities(part 1)

Francis Galton Attempted to assess intellectual intelligence (1884)Found no correlation between measuresProvided statistical techniquesBelieved in the inheritance of genius (discussed in his book Hereditary Genius)

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Early and Modern Tests of Mental Abilities(part 2)

Alfred BinetTended toward environmental explanation of intelligence differencesAssumed all children follow the same course, but not the same rate, of intellectual developmentMeasured each child’s mental ageTested a variety of reasoning and problem-solving questions that predicted how well French children would do in school

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Early and Modern Tests of Mental Abilities(part 3)

Lewis TermanRevised Binet’s test for wider use in the United StatesExtended the upper end of the test’s range Revision was called the Stanford-BinetTheorized intelligence tests reveal intelligence with which person is born

 

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Early and Modern Tests of Mental Abilities(part 4)

David Wechsler: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and Wechsler’s tests for childrenCreated the most widely used intelligence test todayYields an overall intelligence score and separate scores for verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory, and processing speedAvailable in preschool and school-age child versionsProvides clues to strengths or weaknesses

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Principles of Test Construction

Three criteria of a “good” testWas the test standardized?Is the test reliable?Is the test valid?

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Terms to Learn

Standardization: Defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group.Reliability: Extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting.Validity: Extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to measure or predict.Content validity: Extent to which a test samples the behavior of interest.Predictive validity: Success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; assessed by computing the validity.

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The Normal Curve

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Stability or Change? (part 1)

Cross-sectional evidence for intellectual declinePeople of different ages are compared with one another.Older adults give fewer correct answers on intelligence tests than do younger adults.Decline of mental ability with age is part of the general aging process.

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Stability or Change? (part 2)

Longitudinal evidence for intellectual stabilityThe same people (cohort) are restudied and retested over a long period.Findings indicate that intelligence remains stable, and on some tests it even increases.

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Stability or Change? (part 3)

It all depends.After adjusting for participant loss, a steeper decline in intelligence was revealed, especially after age 85.Intelligence is not a single trait, but several distinct abilities.Adjusting for processing speed and using wisdom tests suggest continued intellectual competence in many older adults.

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Aging and Intelligence

Crystallized intelligence: Accumulated knowledge, as reflected in vocabulary and word-power tests.Increases as we age, into middle ageFluid intelligence: Ability to reason speedily and abstractly, as when solving unfamiliar logic problems.Decreases with age; declines gradually until age 75 and then more rapidly after age 85

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Cross-Sectional Versus Longitudinal Testing of Intelligence at Various Ages

In this test of one type of verbal intelligence (inductive reasoning), the cross-sectional method produced declining scores with age. The longitudinal method (in which the same people were retested over a period of years) produced a slight rise in scores well into adulthood. (Data from Schaie, 1994.)

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With Age, We Lose and We Win

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Stability Over the Life Span (part 1)

Before age 3: Casual observation and intelligence tests only modestly predict future aptitudes.By age 4: Intelligence test performance begins to predict adolescent and adult scores.Late adolescence: Remarkable stability of aptitude scores; +.86 correlation.

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Stability Over the Life Span (part 2)

Deary and colleagues studyAfter nearly 70 years of varied life experiences, the test-takers’ two sets of scores showed a striking correlation of +.66. Johnson studyScots born in 1936, and tested from ages 11 to 70, confirmed the remarkable stability of intelligence, independent of life circumstance. When 207 survivors were retested at age 87, the correlation with their age 11 scores was +.51.

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Intelligence Endures

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Why Do Intelligent People Live Longer?

Deary (2008)Intelligence facilitates more education, better jobs, and a healthier environment.Intelligence encourages healthy lifestyles.Prenatal events or early childhood illnesses could influence both intelligence and health.A “well-wired body,” as evidenced by fast reaction speeds, may foster both intelligence and longer life.

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Extremes of Intelligence

One way to evaluate the validity and significance of any test is to compare people who score at the two extremes of the normal curve.The low extremeThe high extremeLet’s look at each of these.

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The Low Extreme of Intelligence (part 1)

Diagnosis of an intellectual disabilityLow intelligence test score (70 or below; 2 standard deviations below average)Difficulty adapting to normal demands of independent livingConceptual skillsSocial skillsPractical skillsIn mild forms, intellectual disability, like normal intelligence, results from a combination of genetic and environmental factors (Reichenberg et al., 2016).

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The Low Extreme of Intelligence (part 2)

Down syndromeCondition of mild to severe intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21U.S. Supreme Court (2014)Recognized the imprecision and arbitrariness of fixed cut-off intelligence scores of 70Required states with death row inmates who scored just above 70 on such tests to consider other evidence

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The High Extreme of Intelligence

Terman studyHigh-scoring children were healthy, well adjusted, and unusually successful academically.After many decades, Terman’s group had attained higher levels of education and accolades.CriticsQuestion the percentage of gifted children and tracking by aptitudeSuggest enriched gifted education may widen educational gapsAgree that children have differing gifts that are well served with appropriate developmental placement

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Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence (part 1)

Do people who share the same genes also share mental abilities?Intelligence test scores of identical twins raised together are nearly as similar as those of the same person taking the same test twice.Estimates of the heritability of intelligence (the extent to which intelligence test score variation can be attributed to genetic variation) range from 50 to 80 percent.

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Intelligence: Nature and Nurture

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Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence (part 2)

Are there known genes for genius?Specific genes have been pinpointed that seemingly influence variations in intelligence and learning disorders.No single DNA segment predicts years of schooling; all genetic variations account for about 2 percent of differences in educational achievement.Other studies have replicated this modest effect of genes on educational achievement (Belsky et al., 2016).A British study recently found genes that predicted 9 percent of the variation in school achievement at age 16 (Selzam et al., 2016).

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Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence (part 3)

Evidence of environment effectsWhere environments vary widely, environmental differences are more predictive of intelligence scores (Tucker-Drob & Bates, 2016).Adoption enhances the intelligence scores of mistreated or neglected children.Intelligence scores of “virtual twins” (same-age, unrelated siblings adopted as infants and raised together) have a correlation of +.28.

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Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence (part 4)

Untangling genes and environmentMental similarities between adopted children and their adoptive families wane with age, until the correlation approaches zero by adulthood.Identical twins’ similarities continue or increase into their eighties.In twin pairs in four countries. heritability of general intelligence g increased from 41 percent in middle childhood to 55 percent in adolescence to 66 percent in young adulthood.

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In Verbal Ability, Whom Do Adopted Children Resemble?

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Early Environmental Influences

Slowing normal developmentMcVicker Hunt (1982): Iranian orphanage study found dire, negative effects of extreme deprivation.Mani and colleagues (2013): Poverty can impede cognitive performance and deplete cognition capacity.Malnutrition, sensory deprivation, and social isolation slow normal brain development.Poverty-related stresses impede cognitive performance (Heberle & Carter, 2015).

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Environmental Influences (part 1)

Schooling and intelligence interactHead Start increases school readiness and contributes to later health and high school completion rates, but the aptitude benefits fade over time.Intensive, high-quality preschool programs boost early intelligence scores.

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Environmental Influences (part 2)

Growth mindset (Dweck, 2006)Fostered with the belief that intelligence is changeableIncreased when effort rather than ability is encouragedMade teens more resilient when frustrated by othersAbility + opportunity + motivation = success

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Gender Differences in Intelligence Test Scores (part 1)

Gender similarities and differencesCompared to similarities, gender differences are fairly minor.Effects of cultureSocial expectations and opportunities matter.Little gender gap found in gender-equal cultures.

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Gender Differences in Intelligence Test Scores (part 2)

GirlsOutpace boys in spelling, verbal fluency, and locating objectsAre better emotion detectors and are more sensitive to touch, taste, and color BoysOutperform girls in tests of spatial ability and complex math problemsVary in their mental ability scores more than girls do

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A Mental Rotation Test

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Racial and Ethnic Similarities and Differences (part 1)

Agreed-upon factsRacial and ethnic groups differ in their average intelligence test scores.High-scoring people and groups are more likely to achieve high levels of education and income.

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Racial and Ethnic Similarities and Differences (part 2)

Genetics research reveals races are alike.Race is not a clearly defined biological category.Within the same population, there are generation-to-generation differences in test scores.Given the same information, Blacks and Whites show similar information-processing skills.Schools and culture matter.In different eras, different ethnic groups have experienced golden ages—periods of remarkable achievement.

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Group Differences and Environmental Impact

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The Question of Bias

Three hypotheses about racial differences in intelligence:There are genetically disposed racial differences in intelligence.There are socially influenced racial differences in intelligence.There are racial differences in test scores, but the tests are inappropriate or biased.

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Two Meanings of Bias

The scientific meaning of bias is based on test predictive validity. If a test does not accurately predict future behavior for all groups of test-takers, it is biased.A test can also be biased if it detects not only innate differences in intelligence but also performance differences caused by cultural experiences.

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Test-Takers’ Expectations (part 1)

Self-fulfilling stereotype threat: A self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.Stereotype threat may impair attention, performance, and learning.Women do not perform as well as men on difficult math tests unless told women usually do as well on the test (Spencer et al., 1997).Black students perform worse when reminded of their race before the test (Steele et al., 2002).

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Test-Takers’ Expectations (part 2)

Stereotype threat does not fully account for Black–White aptitude score differences or the gender gap in high-level math achievements.It does address why Blacks score higher when tested by Blacks, why women score higher on math tests when no male test-takers are present, and the “Obama effect.”Conclusion: Aptitude tests are not biased in a scientific sense but are biased related to insensitivity to differences caused by culture experiences.

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Bias—Or Not?

Competence + Diligence  Accomplishment