Psychology 2e Chapter 4 Consciousness - PowerPoint Presentation

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Psychology 2e

Chapter 4

Consciousness

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Module 9

Sleep and Dreams

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Learning Objectives

9.1

Describe the various stages of consciousness.

9.2

Distinguish between explicit and implicit processing.

9.3

Understand the circadian rhythm and its relation to sleep.

9.4

Outline theories about the functions of sleep.

9.5

Describe the characteristics of the sleep cycle.

9.6

Identify the types of sleep disorders.

9.7

Compare perspectives on the functions of dreams.

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Consciousness

Learning Objective 9.1:

Describe the various states of consciousness.

Consciousness

A person

’

s awareness of everything that is going on around him or her at any given

moment

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States of Consciousness

Learning Objective

9.1: Describe the various states of consciousness.

Waking Consciousness

State in which thoughts, feelings, and sensations are clear and organized, and the person feels alert

Altered State of Consciousness

State in which there is a shift in the quality or pattern of mental activity as compared to waking consciousness

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Processing

Learning Objective

9.2: Distinguish between explicit and implicit processing.

Explicit Processing – processing that is conscious, in which you are aware of your thought process and are focusing your full attention at the task at hand (effortful processing)

Implicit Processing –

processing

that happens without conscious

awareness, in which you can perform an action before you even become aware of it

(automatic processing

)

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Why Do We Need to Sleep?

Learning Objective

9.3: Understand the circadian rhythm and its relation to sleep.

The Biology of Sleep

Sleep is human body’s biological rhythm

Natural cycle of activity that the body must go through

Circadian Rhythms – the sleep-wake cycle

From Latin words “circa” (about) and “diem” (day)

Most people experience sleep at least once in a day

Controlled by the brain through the hypothalamus

(the tiny section

of

the

brain that influences the glandular system)

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How Much Sleep Do We Need?

Learning Objective

9.3: Understand the circadian

rhythm and its relation to sleep.

Varies from person to person

Young adults – 7 to 9 hours

Short sleepers – 4 to 5 hours

Long sleepers – more than 9 hours

Older people – 6 hours or less

Sleep deprivation: any significant loss of sleep

Results in irritability and problems with concentration

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Figure

9.1:

Sleep Patterns of Infants and Adults

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Theories

of Sleep

Learning Objective 9.4: Outline theories about the functions of sleep.

Adaptive Theory – proposes that animals and humans evolved sleep patterns to avoid predators by sleeping when predators are most active

Restorative Theory – proposes that sleep is necessary to the physical health of the body and serves to replenish chemicals and repair cellular damage

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Types

of Sleep

Learning Objective 9.5: Describe the characteristics of the

sleep cycle.

Rapid eye movement (

R

E

M)

Active type of sleep, dreams takes place

Voluntary muscles are inhibited, less movement of the body

N

R

E

M

(

non-R

E

M

)

Much deeper, restful type of sleep

Body is free to move around

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Brainwave Patterns

Learning Objective

9.5: Describe the characteristics of the sleep cycle.

Electroencephalograph (

E

E

G

)

Allows scientists to see the brainwave activity as a person passes

through

various stages of

sleep

beta waves

Very small and very fast waves, shows when the person is wide awake and mentally active

alpha waves

Slightly larger and slower waves, shows when the person relaxes and gets drowsy

theta waves

Slower and larger waves, leading to deep sleep

delta waves

Largest and slowest waves, shows when the person is in the deepest stage of sleep

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Figure

9.2:

Brain Activity During Sleep

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Stages of

Sleep (1 of 2)

Learning Objective 9.5: Describe the characteristics of the sleep cycle.

N1 (R&K Stage 1): Light Sleep

Non-REM

The person may experience

:

hypnagogic images: hallucinations or vivid visual events

hypnic

jerk: knees, legs, or whole body jerks

N2 (R&K Stage 2): Sleep Spindles

Sleep spindles: brief bursts of activity

lasting only a

second or

two

Heart rate slows, breathing is shallow and irregular

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Stages of

Sleep (2 of 2)

Learning Objective 9.5: Describe the characteristics of the sleep cycle.

N3 (R&K Stages 3 and 4): Delta Waves Roll In

Deepest stage of sleep (slow wave sleep)

Body at lowest level of functioning

Growth hormones reach their peak

R (R&K REM)

The person goes back to N2, body temperature increases, eyes move rapidly, heart beats faster, beta waves set in

90% of more vivid and detailed dreams occur

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REM Sleep

Learning Objective 9.5: Describe the characteristics of the sleep cycle.

R

E

M sleep is the stage when dreams occur

Releases the stresses and tensions of the day

R

E

M rebound: increased amounts of R

E

M sleep after being deprived of R

E

M sleep on earlier nights

REM myth: people deprived of REM sleep become paranoid, mentally ill

REM sleep in babies is 50%, and adults is 20%

As infants sleep, the brain makes new neural connections

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Figure

4.3:

A Typical Night’

s Sleep

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Sleep

Disorders (1 of 2)

Learning Objective 9.6: Identify the types of sleep disorders.

Nightmares

Bad/terrifying

dreams occurring during

R

E

M sleep

Experienced more by children because they spend more sleep in REM state

Night Terrors

State of panic resulting in extreme fear

The person may scream, run around the room, and throw arms wildly

As a result, difficulty in breathing occurs

Relatively rare disorder

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Sleep

Disorders (2 of 2)

Learning Objective 9.6: Identify the types of sleep disorders.

Sleep walking (somnambulism)

Occurs in N3 deep sleep

More

common among children than

adults, boys than girls

Some episodes involve walking around the house, looking in the refrigerator, eating, getting into the car

No recall of the episode the next morning

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Problems

During Sleep (1 of 2)

Learning Objective 9.6: Identify the types of sleep disorders.

Insomnia: the inability to get to sleep, stay asleep

, persistently waking too early,

or get a good quality of

sleep

Steps to get sleep

Go to bed only when sleepy

Don’t do anything in your bed but sleep

Don’t try too hard to get sleep

Go to bed at the same time, get up at the same time

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Problems

During Sleep (2 of 2)

Learning Objective 9.6: Identify the types of sleep disorders.

Sleep apnea

loud snoring happening every time a person sleeps

disorder in which the person stops breathing for nearly half a minute or more

Narcolepsy

sudden sleep seizure during waking state

the person suddenly slips into REM sleep during the day

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Table 9.1:

Sleep Disorders

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Dreams

Learning Objective

9.7: Compare perspectives on the functions of dreams.

Sigmund Freud

:

Dreams

as

Wish Fulfillment

The Interpretation of Dreams

(1900)

Dreams

reveal

problems from conflict and events buried in

unconscious

Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis

D

reams are products of activities in the pons in the brainstem sending random signals to the upper part of the brain during REM sleep

Another kind of thinking that occurs when people sleep

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Figure 9.4:

The Brain and Activation-Synthesis

Theory

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Dreams

Learning Objective

9.7: Compare perspectives on the functions of dreams.

Activation-information-mode model (

A

I

M

)

Revised version of the

Activation-Synthesis hypothesis

Information that is accessed during waking hours can have an influence on the synthesis of

dreams

When the brain is “making up” a dream to explain its own activation, it uses meaningful bits and pieces of the person’s experiences from the previous day or the last few days rather than just random items from memory.

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What Do People Dream About?

Learning Objective

9.7: Compare perspectives on the functions of dreams.

Finding Meaning in Dreams

: Dr. William

Domhoff

men dream of other males

women dream about males and females equally

men have more physical aggression

women dream as victims of physical aggression

dreams differ based on the culture’s “personality”

men’s dreams involve weapons, tools, cars

women’s dreams involve people they know, personal appearances, issues on family and home

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Module 10

Hypnosis and Drugs

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Learning Objectives

10.1

Describe hypnosis and issues surrounding its nature and use.

10.2

Understand meditation and relaxation and their effects.

10.3

Describe the nature of flow states.

10.4

Explain how psychoactive drugs act at the synaptic level.

10.5

Evaluate the physiological and psychological effects of psychoactive drugs.

10.6

Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.

10.7

Describe how culture and expectations influence the use and experience of

drugs.

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Hypnosis

Learning Objective 10.1: Describe hypnosis and issues surrounding its nature and use.

Hypnosis: a state of consciousness in which a person is especially susceptible to suggestion

Four key steps in inducing hypnosis:

The hypnotist tells the person to focus on what is being said.

The person is told to relax and feel tired.

The hypnotist tells the person to “let go” and accept suggestions easily.

The person is told to use vivid imagination.

A handy way to help people relax and control pain

Sometimes used as psychological therapy to help people cope with pain, anxiety, craving for food or drugs

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Who Can Be Hypnotized?

Learning Objective 10.1: Describe hypnosis and issues surrounding its nature and use.

People can be hypnotized when active and alert, and only if they are willing

Only 80% of all people can be hypnotized

Only 40% are good hypnotic subjects

People who can be hypnotized have areas of their brain associated with decision-making and attention, more active and connected

People cannot be hypnotized against their will

Basic Suggestion Effect

–

the tendency to act as though their behavior is automatic and out of control

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Theories of Hypnosis

Learning Objective 10.1: Describe hypnosis and issues surrounding its nature and use.

Hypnosis as Dissociation

–

hypnosis works only on the immediate conscious mind of a person, while a part of that person’s mind (a “hidden observer”) remains aware of all that is going on

Hypnosis as Social Role-Playing – began with an experiment in which participants who were

not

hypnotized were instructed to behave as if they were

Social-cognitive theory of hypnosis

–

theory that assumes that people who are hypnotized are not in an altered state but are merely playing the role expected of them in the situation

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Table 10.1 Facts About Hypnosis

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Meditation

Learning Objective 10.2: Understand meditation and relaxation and their effects.

What Is Meditation?

a series of mental exercises meant to refocus attention and achieve a trancelike state of consciousness

produces a state of relaxation that can aid in coping with the physiological reactions to a stressful situation

changes brain waves to include more theta and alpha waves (indicating deep relaxation)

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Benefits of Meditation

The benefits of meditation

lowers blood pressureincreases the amounts of melatonin secreted at nightreduces the levels of chronic pain

reduces the symptoms of anxiety, depression, and hostility

reduces the risk of heart disease

reduces stress levels in cancer patients

Learning Objective 10.2: Understand meditation and relaxation and their effects.

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Where Did the Time Go? (1 of 2)

Dr.

Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi’s Theory of Flow states:an outgrowth of positive psychology as events that challenge our skills enough to grow and improve in the skill, but not so difficult that the challenge creates anxiety

w

e lose ourselves in the activity and our sense of time is transformed in a way that fits the needs of the activity

the rewards of flow activities are intrinsic and are the product of a merging of the self and the activity so it becomes automatic and almost effortless

Learning Objective 10.3: Describe the nature of flow states.

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Where Did the Time Go? (2 of 2)

Some of the experiences that reflect the nature of flow states are:

athletes describe being in the zoneentertainers describe being lost in the music

artists describe their medium as an extension of themselves as they produce their works

Learning Objective 10.3 : Describe the nature of flow states.

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Psychoactive Drugs

Psychoactive drugs are chemical substances that alter thinking, perception, memory, or some combination of those abilities.

Can pose serious risks to one’s health and may even cause death

when taken for pleasure, to get “high,” or to dull psychological pain, or when taken without the supervision of a qualified medical professional

Have the potential to create either physical or psychological dependence, both of which can lead to a lifelong pattern of abuse as well as the risk of taking increasingly larger doses, leading to drug overdose

Learning Objective 10.4: Explain how psychoactive drugs act at the synaptic level.

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Physical Dependence

Physical

Dependence – condition that occurs when a person’s body becomes unable to function normally without a particular drug

Signs of Physical Dependence

The user’s body craves for the drug

Drug tolerance,

as the person continues to use the drug, larger and larger doses of the drug are needed to achieve the same initial effects of the drug

The

user experiences symptoms of withdrawal

(

nausea, pain, tremors, crankiness, and high blood

pressure) when

deprived of the

drug

Many

users will take more of the drug to alleviate the symptoms of withdrawal, which makes the entire situation

worse

Negative

reinforcement,

the tendency to continue a behavior that leads to the removal of or escape from unpleasant circumstances or sensations

Learning Objective 10.4: Explain how psychoactive drugs act at the synaptic level.

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Role of the Brain

Brain plays an important part in drug dependency.

When a drug enters the body, it goes to the area, known as the brain’s “reward pathway,” releasing dopamine and causing intense pleasure.

Learning Objective 10.4: Explain how psychoactive drugs act at the synaptic level.

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Psychological Dependence

Psychological Dependence –

the belief that the drug is needed to continue a feeling of emotional or psychological well-beingThe body may not need the drug but they continue to use it because they think they need it

There is no withdrawal, can

last

forever

Learning Objective 10.5: Evaluate the physiological and psychological effects of psychoactive drugs.

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Psychoactive Drugs

The effect of a particular drug depends on the category to which it belongs and the particular neurotransmitter the drug affects.

Major drug categoriesStimulants: drugs that increase the functioning of the nervous system

Depressants: drugs that decrease the functioning of the nervous system

Hallucinogenics: drugs

that alter perceptions and may cause hallucinations

Learning Objective 10.6: Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.

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Stimulants: Up, Up, and Away

Stimulants are a class of drugs that cause either the sympathetic division or the central nervous system (or both) to increase levels of functioning, temporarily.

Stimulants “speed up” the neurons – the heart may beat faster or the brain may work faster, thus they are called “uppers.”

Learning Objective 10.6: Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.

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Stimulants

Amphetamines

Benzedrine, Methedrine, DexedrineCocaine

Nicotine

Caffeine

Learning Objective 10.6: Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.

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Amphetamines

Synthesized in laboratories

A related compound, methamphetamine, is used very rarely to treat attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder or narcolepsy “Crystal meth” is a crystalline form, smoked and used by recreational drug users

Amphetamine psychosis

: condition causing addicts to become delusional and

paranoid

– they

think people are out to “get”

them; violence

is a likely outcome, both against the self and

others

Learning Objective 10.6: Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.

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Cocaine

Found in coca plant leaves

Produces feelings of euphoria, energy, power, and pleasureDeadens pain and suppresses the appetite

Highly dangerous drug

Some people have convulsions and may even die when using cocaine for the first time.

Children

born to mothers who use cocaine

have

been associated with increased risk of learning disabilities, delayed language development, and an inability to cope adequately with

stress.

Learning Objective 10.6: Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.

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Nicotine

Relatively mild but nevertheless toxic stimulant

Produces a slight “rush” or sense of arousal as it raises blood pressure and accelerates the heartProvides a rush of sugar into the bloodstream

Has a relaxing effect on most people and seems to reduce

stress

The

physical withdrawal symptoms can be as bad as those resulting from alcohol, cocaine, or heroin

abuse

Learning Objective 10.6: Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.

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Caffeine

A mild stimulant that almost everyone uses

Found in coffee, tea, most sodas, chocolate, and even many over-the-counter drugs Helps maintain alertness, and can increase the effectiveness of some pain relievers such as aspirin

Often

added to pain relievers

and

is the key ingredient in medications meant to keep people

awake

Learning Objective 10.6: Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.

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Depressants: Down in the Valley

Commonly known as tranquilizers or sleeping pills, barbiturates

are drugs that have a sedative (sleep-inducing) effectOverdose can lead to death Benzodiazepines

– used to lower anxiety and reduce

stress (Valium

, Xanax, Halcion, Ativan, and

Librium)

Common types: alcohol and narcotics

Learning Objective 10.6: Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.

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Alcohol

Most commonly used and abused depressant

Obvious health risks to the liver, brain, and heartAssociated with loss of work time, loss of a job, and loss of economic

stability

Indirectly stimulates the release of a neurotransmitter called GABA, the brain’s major

depressant

GABA slows down or stops neural

activity

Learning Objective 10.6: Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.

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Narcotics

A type of depressant that suppresses the sensation of pain

Binds and stimulates the nervous system’s natural receptor sites for endorphins Slows down the action of the nervous system Derivative of a particular plant-based substance, opium

Opium mimics the effects of endorphins, the nervous system’s natural painkillers

Learning Objective 10.6: Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.

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Morphine

Created by dissolving opium in an acid and then neutralizing the acid with ammonia

Still used today to control severe pain, in controlled doses for very short periodsHeroin, a derivative of morphine, does not have many of the disagreeable side effects of morphine

Learning Objective 10.6: Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.

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Hallucinogens: Higher and Higher

Causes the brain to alter its interpretation of sensations and produces sensory distortions very similar to

synesthesiaFalse sensory perceptions, called hallucinations, are often experienced, especially with more powerful hallucinogens

Two basic types of hallucinogens

created in a laboratory (manufactured highs)

from natural sources (

nonmanufactured

highs)

Learning Objective 10.6: Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.

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Manufactured Highs

LSD, or lysergic acid diethylamide, is synthesized from a grain fungus called

ergot A very tiny drop of LSD makes people get that high feeling, colors seem more intense, sounds more beautiful, and so on.

Experience is not always a pleasant one.

PCP (phenyl

cyclohexyl

piperidine

or

phencyclidine

)

Depending on the dosage, it can be a hallucinogen, stimulant, depressant, or an analgesic drug.

MDMA (a “designer drug” known

as

Ecstasy or simply X) and PCP are now classified as

stimulatory

hallucinogenics

Learning Objective 10.6: Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.

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Nonmanufactured High

Marijuana, a hallucinogenic drug, comes from the leaves and flowers of the hemp plant called

cannabis sativa Psychoactive cannabinoid, and the active ingredient in marijuana, is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)

Produces a feeling of wellbeing, mild intoxication, and mild sensory distortions or hallucinations

Marijuana creates a powerful

psychological dependency

, it does not produce

physical dependency

Learning Objective 10.6: Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.

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Table 10.2 How Drugs Affect Consciousness

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Who Uses Drugs?

Those who cannot deal with psychological pressures from the outside world

Those who are depressed, who feel their lives are meaningless, hopeless, and directionless

Those who have recently left home or who suffer from anger, anxiety, or insomnia

 

Learning Objective 10.7: Describe how culture and expectations influence the use and experience of drugs.

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Influence of Culture on Drugs

External forces can play a role in drug use as well

Peer pressureAlcohol and other drugs are often found at parties

Culture also plays a role in substance use and

abuse

Some

cultures

incorporate

the use of drugs into religious rituals and ceremonies.

Some countries/states legalized the use of drugs for recreation.

Learning Objective 10.7: Describe how culture and expectations influence the use and experience of drugs.