Designing Convivial Digital Cities A Social Intelligence Design Approach Patrice Caire - PDF document

WethanktheCityofLuxembourgfortheirÞnancialsupportandLeonvanderTorre,MatthiasNickles,Joris Figure1:eCityLuxembourg,HabboHotelandMSNCitySearch2.1GoalsofDigitalCitiesCommercialdigitalcitiesascommercialportalsstartedaslocalportalsrunbyprivatecompanies,suchasphone,webandairlinecompanies,competingwitheachother.Nowadays,globalcom-paniessuchasAOLandMicrosoftoercityguideswithservices:Shopping,entertainment,localinformationandmaps.Theirbusinessgoalsaregearedtowardverticalmarketsandtheirrevenuesaregeneratedbyadvertising.Theirgeneraltrendistoprovideinformationthatiseasyto“ndandsearchfor,goodmaintenanceofsystemsandfrequentupdates.TheyareeectiveinAsia,wheretheycomplementgovernmentagencies,butlimitedinscopebytheirtop-downcontrolledandselectedcontent,lackoftwo-wayinteractionwithusersandmainpurpose,e.g.advertising.PublicdigitalcitiesstartedintheUSwithAmericancommunitynetworks,inspiredbyatraditionofcommunity-centered,grass-rootsengagementsthatemphasizedfreedomofspeechandactivism.Theiroriginalgoalwastocreateavirtualinformationspaceforexample,theWELLWholeEarth’LectronicLinkandBlacksburgElectronicVillage.Casestudy:BlacksburgElectronicVillage(BEV)wasbuiltin91asaconsortiumleadbyuniversities,suchasVirginiaTech.University,byregionalcompaniessuchasBellAtlanticandlocalauthorities.Itwasahighpro“leprojectbutwithverylittlecommunityinvolvementtothevision.Itwasconstructedfromatechnologicalpointofviewandthe“rstprojectofthekindwithwebinterface.Itrapidlygrewuntil95thenitsactivitydecreasedduetofundamentaldisagreementbetweenallthepartnersexpectations.Thecompanieslookedforrevenueselsewhereanduniversitiesstoppedprovidinginternettonon-universitymembers.Althoughstillactivetoday,BEVhasonlyaverylocalfocusoncommunityuseoftechnologyandlearning.USpublicdigitalcitiesmainchallengeswere,“rstthelackofsynergybetweencommunitynetworks,privatecompaniesandadministrationsandsecond,thecompetitionbetweenpro“tandnon-pro“torganizations.TodaytheyalignwitheGovernments.InEurope,publicdigitalcitiesevolvedthroughtheleadershipoftheEuropeanCommunity,launching“rsttheTelecitiesprogramin93,thenlargescopeprogramsandprojectssuchasEurocities,Intelcitiesande-Agora.AttheEuropeanCommunitylevel,thegoalistoshareideasandtechnologiesbetweenallthecitiestostrengthentheEuropeanpartnership.Atthelevelofthecities,thegoalistouseinformationandcommunicationtechnologiestoresolvesocial,economicandregionaldevelopmentissuesandimprovethequalityofsocialservices.Theircharacteristicstodayaretobenetworksgeneratedwithinandforspeci“cregions,toformcomplexcommunitiesbasedoncollaborationsbetweencit-izens,universities,cityadministrationsandprivatecompanies,andtoemphasizesocialinclusion.Theirmainchallengeisthedicultytointegrategrass-rootscommunitiesandcommercialpointofviewswhichappearsintherelativelyslowcommercializationofservicesandinformation.2.2TechnologiesandArchitecturesofDigitalCitiesCommercialdigitalcitiesrelyonaccumulatingurbaninformationandarewellmaintained.Theyuseproprietarysystemsandcountonsearchengines,thatrankinterestlinksbysponsors,forbusinessopportunities.Earlyon,commercialdigitalcitiesrecognizedtheimportanceofusabilityandhavedonewelltomaketheirservicesusablebymany.TheclaimofAmericaOnlinewas:So However,asyet,noonemodelhasbeenidenti“ed.IntheUSfor-pro“tbusinessesandnon-pro“torganizationsco-existandcompete,inEUtheattemptsaretocoordinateadministrations,companiesandcitizenswhileAsiapursuesgovernmentdirectedgrowth.Governmentsgoalsfordigitalcitiesconsisttohelpclosegeographicandsocialdigitaldivides,withaccesseverywhereandforall,toaccelerateeconomicdevelopment,andtomakethegovernmentsofcitiesmoreecientandaccessible.Pluralismandparticipationarecombinedwithmulti-disciplinaryapproaches,synergybetweenadministrations,companiesandcitizensand,mostimportantly,asharedvisionbetweenallstakeholders.Thesuccessfactorsofdigitalcitiesconsistinachievingparticipationofinstitutionsandcom-munities,inbalancingtop-downdirection,neededfortechnicalinfrastructure,andgrass-rootsinitiatives,necessarytoinsurecitizenscohesionandin“ndinganequilibriumbetweeneconomicandcivicmotivations.Ultimately,digitalcitiesneedtodealwiththesamecomplexityasrealcitiestoattractandretainusage,andtofunctionasentitiesthataugmenttheirphysicalcounterparts.3SocialIntelligentDesignforDigitalCitiesOneconceptofthedigitalcityistoprovideinfrastructurefornetworkinglocalcommunitiesandtopromotesocialinteractionamongpeoplewhovisitorresideinacityŽ(Azechietal.,2000).Anumberofstrategiescanbeusedtomeetthesegoals.Therefore,asthemostprofoundin”uenceofthesocialintelligencedesignapproachcanbefeltinthestudiesofonlinecommunities,wheremediatedcommunicationisakeyvehicleforcreatingandmaintainingsocialcontactŽ(Fruchteretal.,2005),wewilllookatintelligentagentsapproachesandcontrastitwithergonomicsandhumanfactorsapproaches.3.1GoalsofErgonomicsandIntelligentAgentsErgonomicspractitionersareconcernedwiththecapabilitiesandlimitationsofhumanstoim-provethedesignofsystemsanddevicesŽ(Lundetal.,2005):Theystudyhowhumansbehavephysicallyandpsychologicallyinrelationtoparticularenvironments,productsorservices;Theymakesuggestions,basedonusersreactionsandpreferencesinrelationtovisualandothersensorystimuli,onhowtoredesign,forexampleawebsite,tomeetusersneedsorgivegeneralguidelines.Inmulti-agentsystemsanagentisde“nedasacomputersystemthatissituatedinsomeenvi-ronment,andthatiscapableofautonomousactioninthisenvironmentinordertomeetitsdesignobjectives[...]Agentsarecapableof”exible(reactive,proactive,social)behaviorŽWooldridge(2004).Thiscapabilityiscrucialfordigitalcitiessinceitallowsagentstocooperate,coordinatetheiractionsandnegotiatewitheachother;Itisalsofundamentaltosocialintelligencedesignsinceconventionally,socialintelligencehasbeendiscussedasanabilityofanactor/agenttorelatetootheractors/agentsinasociety,understandthem,andinteracteectivelywiththem.Ž(Fruchteretal.,2005).Intelligentagents,withtheirarti“cialintelligencecapabilitiescanassistusers,actontheirbehalf,adaptandlearnwhileperformingnon-repetitivetasks.Itisamulti-disciplinary“eldincludingforinstance,socio-cognitiveresearch,psychology,linguisticsandpedagogy.3.2ApplicationsforErgonomicsandIntelligentAgentsWithsystemsbecomingincreasinglycomplexandpervasive,trendsinergonomicshavebeentoincreasetheusabilityofsystemswiththedesignofinterfacesthatallowuserstointeractwiththesystemscontrolcommandsandmechanisms,inamannerreferredtoasnaturalanduser-friendly,usingmenus,icons,keystrokes,mouseclicks,andsimilarcapabilities.Thisismadepossiblewiththeapplicationofengineeringpsychology,aresearchbranchofpsychologytheoryappliedtothedesignofsystems.Ergonomicspractitionersdevelopdesignspeci“cations,guidelines,methods,andtoolstoensurethatsystemsarecompatiblewiththecharacteristicsofhumanswhooper-ate,maintainorotherwiseinteractwiththem.Forexample,thedigitalcityofLuxembourg,intheprocessofcreatingaone-stopadministration,chosetostartwiththedeclarationofanewbornbaby,akeyprocedureforitscitizens,andacomplexoperationfortheadministrationas Thesecriticalchallengespointouttheethicalissuesraisedbythepossibledevelopmentofsuchsystems:Preservingpupilsprivacy,securingtheinformationgatheredtocreatetheirsocialpro“les,deterringpossiblemisuseofpupilsaectivestatesandsystemerrorsconcerningthedata.Theyalsopointouttheimportanceofdevelopingandusingguidelines,similarlytotheEuropeanPrivacyDesignGuidelinesfortheDisappearingComputerLahlouandJegou(2003)establishedtoimplementprivacywithinthecoreofubiquitouscomputingsystemsŽLahlouetal.(2005).Anumberofresearchaddressingtheseissuesareforexample,EricksonandKellogg(2000)sociallytranslucentsystemscharacterizedbyvisibility,awareness,andaccountabilityorTerHofteetal.(2006)studyofplace-basedpresenceandtrustevaluation.CasareandSichman(2005)reputationsystemfurtherillustratesintelligentagentscapabili-ties.ReputationisanindispensableconditionforthesocialconvivialityinhumansocietiesŽ,itmakesinformationtransparent,asallgroupmembersreceivethesameinformationabouttheirpeersanditensuresconvivialityforthegroup.Inthissystem,everyoneisawareofanyonesbehavior,thatisanyonescomplianceornottotherulesofthegroup.Afunctionalontologyofreputationformulti-agentsystemsisde“nedwherebyrolesareplayedbyentitiesinvolvedinreputativeprocessessuchasreputationevaluationandreputationpropagation.ŽTheauthorsclaimisthatconceptsofthelegalworldcanbeusedtomodelthesocialworld,throughtheextensionoftheconceptoflegalruletosocialnormandtheinternalizationofsocialmechanismsintheagentsmind,sofarexternalizedinlegalinstitutionsŽ.Intheirsystem,theagentsactualbehaviorsarecomparedtothesocialnormsobservedintheirworld.Theprocess,however,presupposesaninitialreputationpro“leofusersthatagentscanthenupdateinrealtime.Reputationactsasacommunicationtool,ensuringcompletesocialtransparencythroughoutthesystem.Thestrictapplicationofnormstoreputationhowevermaybedicultandsuerfromrigidity,andonecanwonderabouttheethicalissues,suchasprivacy,raisedbythistypesystem.3.3SummaryTherecentandlargescaledevelopmentofintelligentinterfacescombinescomputingpower,adap-tiveanddynamicsystemsformorenaturalandinvisibleinteractionsbetweenusersandcomputers.Theultimatestepsstilloccurattheinterfacelevel,betweentheinputandoutputhardwarede-vices,andthesoftwarethatdeterminesandpresentstheinformationtotheuserforexample,onascreen.Astechnologiesdevelopandusersexpectationsgrow,the“eldofhuman-computerinteractionbroadenstoencompassagreaternumberandvarietyof“eldsthatintertwineinmoreintricateandcomplexwayssuchascomputerscience,psychology,cognitivescience,humanfactors,ergonomics,sociology,andarti“cialintelligence;Allconcurringandcontributingtothecreationandenhancementofoptimalandseemlessuserexperiences.HumancomputerinteractionresearchnowfacesnewcriticalchallengesMarkopoulosetal.(2005):Designingsystemsandenvironmentsthatcanbeperceivedassociallyintelligent;Designingintelligencethatwillsupporthuman-to-humancooperationandsocialinteractions;Evaluatingsocialintelligenceandde“ningthebene“tsofsocialintelligence.Answertothelastquestionwouldappeartobearequirementfortheevaluationofsocialintelligenceandfordesigningintelligencethatwillsupportsocialinteractions.Therefore,tostudysocialuser-interfaces,Markopoulosetal.experimentwiththeirroboticresearchplatform,iCat,forittoexhibitarichsetofhuman-likebehaviorsandconcludethatthechallengeaheadistheneedtomakesystemscapableofunderstandingandrelatingtopeopleatasociallevel,timing,andcuingtheirinteractionsinasociallyadeptmannerŽ.ŽAdesirablesocialculturewillaordthemembersofthecommunitytolearnfromeachotherŽ(Fruchteretal.,2005),andtoachievethisisamongthemanychallengessocialintelligencedesignaimstoaddresswithmethodsofestablishingthesocialcontext,embodiedconversationalagents,collaborationdesign,publicdiscourse,theoreticalaspectsofsocialintelligencedesign,andevaluationofsocialintelligenceŽNishida(2001). Proceduralnorms:Lawrencedistinguishestwokindsofproceduralnormsobjectivepro-ceduralnormsareruleswhichdescribehowdecisionsareactuallymadeinapoliticalsystem;asystemsobjectiveproceduralnormsareaprimarydeterminantofthecontentofpoliticaldecisionsinthattheyspecifywhoactuallymakesdecisions,whocantrytoin”uencedecisionmakers,whatpoliticalresourcesarelegitimateandhowresourcesmaybeused.Subjectiveproceduralnorms,ontheotherhand,areattitudesaboutthewayinwhichdecisionsshouldbemadeŽ(Lawrence,1976).Proceduralnormsareinstrumentalforindividualsworkinginasystem.Indigitalcities,examplesarebackoceproceduresandinthepreviousexampleofacitizenusingbadlanguageinapublicforum,thentheothercitizensreactionstoallsendrebus.4.2ExplicitversusImplicitRepresentationofNormsThe“rstpropertyofnormsinthede“nitionofnormativemulti-agentsystemsisthatnormsareexplicitlyrepresented.Normsareoftengivenasrequirementsofcomputersystemsbutonlyimplicitlyrepresented.Anexampleofimplicitrepresentationisaforminwhichyouwouldbeaskedtostatewhetherornotyoukeepapetathomewithoutmentioningtoyouthepurposeoftheinformatione.g.thatifyouranswerisarmative,eitheryouwillberequestedtopayalicensefeeortheamountofthefeewillbedirectlydeductedfromyourbankaccount.Implicitrepresentationsareopaquetousersandpreventgovernmentstoful“llthedemocraticpromisethattransparencyandexplicitrepresentationsdeliver.Asusersneedforexplanationandunderstandingofrulesandregulationsgrows,representationshavetobecomemoreexplicitandpersonalizedtotheirexpectations.Similarly,governmentsinterestalsoresideintheexplicitrepresentationofnormsthatcanbeaddressedthroughthedevelopmentofmechanismsforknowledgerepresentationandreasoning.Currenteortsaresomewhatin-betweenimplicitandexplicitrepresentationwithtoolsfortextrepresentationandretrievalwithmoreadvancedontologies,semanticlinksandsearchcapabilities.Tothiseect,theUSgovernmentlaunchedin2006abusinessportaltohelpsmallbusinessescomplywithFederalregulations,aneedthatwasnotbeingmetbyanyotherFederalgovernmentprogram.(Caire,2007c)InNYC,forinstance,torenewonlineyourDriversLicensethestipulationis:Youcannotchangeyouraddressduringthistransaction.YoumusthaveacompletedformMV-619(EyeTestReport)forthistransaction.ReadtherequirementsbeforeyoubeginthistransactionŽ.Normsforconvivialityaresocialnorms,andeventhoughtheycanbecommunicated,theyareoftennotmadeexplicit.Considerforexamplethenormofbeingpoliticallycorrect:Anagentmayappeartofollowandembracethebeliefsofagroupbyfearofappearingdierentbutwithoutconviction,followingagroupwithouttrulybeingpartofit.Explicitnormsrelevanttoconvivialitymayrefertothecooperativebehaviorofagents.4.3TheViolationofNormsThesecondpropertyinthede“nitionofnormativemulti-agentsystemsisthatnormscanbeviolated.Thisisalsoseenasanimportantconditionfortheuseofdeonticlogicincomputerscience:Importantly,thenormsallowforthepossibilitythatactualbehaviormayattimesdeviatefromtheideal,i.e.thatviolationsofobligations,orofagentsrights,mayoccurŽ,asobservedbyJonesandCarmo(2002).Ifnormscannotbeviolatedthenthenormsareregimented.Forexample,ifthereisanorminaccesscontrolthataservicecanonlybeaccessedwithsomecerti“cate,thenthisnormcanbeimplementedinthesystembyensuringthattheservicecanonlybeaccessedwhenthecerti“cateispresentedtoo.Regimentednormscorrespondtopreventativecontrol,inthesensethatnormviolationsareprevented.Whennormviolationsarepossiblethereisonlydetectivecontrol,inthesensethatbehaviormustbemonitored,andnormviolationshavetobedetectedandsanctioned.Socialorderrequiressocialcontrol,anincessantlocal(micro)activityofitsunits,aimedatrestoringtheregularitiesprescribedbynorms.Thus,theagentsattributetothenormativesystem,besidesgoals,alsotheabilitytoautonomouslyenforcetheconformityoftheagentstothenorms,becauseadynamicsocialorderrequiresacontinuousactivityforensuringthatthenormative Lookingatsomede“nitionsshowsthatthemeaningofconvivialitydependsonthecontextofuse(table1):Insociology,convivialitytypicallydescribesarelationbetweenindividualsandemphasizesvaluessuchasequalityandcommunitylife.Intechnologyhowever,convivialtypicallydescribesarelationbetweenasoftwareandauserandemphasizesqualitiessuchasuser-friendly,ecientandreliable.AlesscommonviewofconvivialityemergeswhenitbecomesaninstrumenttoexercisepowerandenforceonepointofviewoveranotherTaylor(2004).Convivialityisthenexperiencedasanegativeforcebytheloosingside.Wesummarized,fromdierentsources,positiveandnegativeaspectsofconvivialityandpresent,asexamples,someexcerpts(table2):Theemphasisisonsharingofcommongroundsandinclusivenessforpositiveside,ondivisionandcoercivebehaviorsfornegativeside.Table2:Thedierentaspectsofconviviality Positiveaspects Greyaspects Negativeaspects (Enabler) (Ignorance) (Threat) Shareknowledge&skills Ignoreculturaldiversity Crushoutsiders Dealwithcon”ict Hidecon”ict Fragmentation FeelingoftogethernessŽ Promotehomogenization Totalitarism Equality Politicalcorrectness Reductionism Trust Non-transparentsystematiccontrols Deception 5.1FromIndividualstoGroupsBeingthe“rstin1964touseconvivialityinascienti“candphilosophicalcontext,Polanyi(1974)describesitassynonymouswithempathy:Itallowsindividualstoidentifywitheachothertherebyexperiencingeachothersfeelings,thoughtsandattitudes.Byextension,acommunityisconvivialwhenitaimsatsharingknowledge:Memberstrusteachother,sharecommitmentsandinterestsandmakemutualeortstobuildconvivialityandpreserveit.Illich(1971)alsodescribesaconviviallearningexperienceasbasedonroleswapping,teacherrolealternatingwithlearnerrole;Heem-phasizestheconceptofreciprocityaskeycomponenttoconvivialityandcreatestheconceptssuchasthelearningwebs,skillexchangenetworksandpeer-matchingcommunication,laterexpandedbyPapertandtheConstructionists,withanumberofideasforinstancethelearning-by-making(PapertandHarel,1991).Butconvivialityisalsoasocialformofhumaninteraction,saysSchechter(2004).Linkinginteractiontophysicalexperiencesherecognizesthesocialdimensionofconviviality,asawaytoreinforcegroupcohesionthroughtherecognitionofcommonvalues.Thusthesharingofacertainkindoffoodand/ordrinkcanbeseenasawaytocreateandreinforceasocietalgroupthroughapositivefeelingoftogetherness(beingincludedin/orpartofthegroup),onwhichthecommunitysawarenessofitsidentityisbased.ŽPhysicalexperiencesofconvivialityaretransformedintolearningandknowledgesharingexperiences:ToknowistounderstandinacertainmannerthatcanbesharedbyotherswhoformwithyouacommunityofunderstandingŽ.However,Ashby(2004)pointsouttheinstrumentalizationofconvivialitywhenonegroupisfavoredattheexpenseofanother,truthrealitiesaboutminoritiesarebuiltfromtheperspectiveofthemajorityviatemplatetokeninstancesinwhichcon”ictishighlightedandresolutionisachievedthroughminorityassimilationtomajoritynorms[...]Convivialityisachievedforthemajority,butonlythroughaprocessbywhichnon-convivialityisreinforcedfortheminorityŽ.5.2FromGroupstoInstitutionsForIllich(1974),convivialitysigni“esindividualfreedomrealizedinpersonalinterdependenceŽ;Itisthefoundationforanewsociety,onethatgivesitsmembersthemeans,referredtoastools,forachievingtheirpersonalgoals:Aconvivialsocietywouldbetheresultofsocialarrangementsthat 7ConclusionInthispaperweconsidertheuseofsocialintelligencedesigntomodelconvivialityfordigitalcities.Welookatthefollowingissues:First,wedistinguishcommercialdigitalcitiesfrompublicdigitalcitiesandnotesomecomplexoverlaps.Second,asergonomicshasbecomeanintegratedpartofdesign,intelligentagentsarekeytothedevelopmentofconviviality.Third,thekindsofnormstypicallydistinguishedinlegalsystemscanbedistinguishedfornormsofconvivialitytoo.Fourth,theissueofnegativesidesofconvivialityandwaystodealwithitisofcentralconcerninwebcommunitieslikedigitalcities.Fifth,theroleofconvivialityasamechanismtoreinforcesocialcohesionandasatooltoreducemis-coordinationindigitalcitiescanbefacilitatedwithasocialintelligencedesignapproach.Moreover,wenotethatintelligentinterfacesallowinstantinteractionsandtherebycreatestrongneedsforcoordinationandregulationmechanisms.Theseneedshavetobeaddressedtoensurethesafeguardofindividualsagainstabuses,suchasprivacyintrusionsandidentitymanipulations.Therefore,itiscrucialtobuildintotheapplicationdesignsofdigitalcities,thenecessarypro-tectionmechanismsagainstthepotentialnegativesidesofconviviality,suchasdeception,groupfragmentationandreductionism.Bestpracticesandguidelinesfordesigningsocialintelligencesystems,mustincludeaspectssuchasensuringallpartyspointsofview,inordertoavoidthecrushingofonesidebyanother.Theconceptofconvivialityallowstotakeintoaccountsocialandcognitivefactorsaswellasethicalissuesraisedbylargescaledevelopmentofdigitalcities,italsopointsoutthenegativesidestobeprevailedover.Fromindividualsocialassistantstocommunicationfacilitators,numerousresearchdirectionsinsocialintelligencedesignexemplifytheneedforcognitiveandsocialinputtoaddressissuesaswideapartasinformationclutteranddigitaldivide.Webelieveconvivialitytobeacrucialcoordinationandregulationmechanismfordigitalcities.Wethereforeemphasizetheroleofsocialintelligencetodesignconvivialdigitalcities.ReferencesAshby,W.(2004).Unmaskingnarrative:Asemioticperspectiveontheconviviality/non-convivialitydichotomyinstorytellingaboutthegermanother.Trans,Internetjournalforculturalsciences,1(15).Azechi,S.,Fujihara,N.,Sumi,K.,Hirata,T.,Yano,H.,andNishida,T.(2000).Publicopinionchannel:Achallengeforinteractivecommunitybroadcasting.InIshidaandIsbister(2000),pages427…441.Boella,G.,vanderTorre,L.,andVerhagen,H.(2006).Introductiontonormativemultiagentsystems.Computational&MathematicalOrganizationTheory,12(2-3):71…79.Boella,G.andvanderTorre,L.W.N.(2004).Regulativeandconstitutivenormsinnormativemultiagentsystems.InDubois,D.,Welty,C.A.,andWilliams,M.-A.,editors,KnowledgeRepresentation,pages255…266.AAAIPress.Boella,G.andvanderTorre,L.W.N.(2005).Constitutivenormsinthedesignofnormativemultiagentsystems.InToni,F.andTorroni,P.,editors,CLIMAVI,volume3900ofLectureNotesinComputerScience,pages303…319.Springer.Caire,P.(2007a).Convivialityforambientintelligence.InProceedingsofArticialSocietiesforAmbientIntelligence,ArticialIntelligenceandSimulationofBehaviour(AISB’07),pagesCaire,P.(2007b).Acriticaldiscussionontheuseofthenotionofconvivialityfordigitalcities.ProceedingsofWebCommunities,pages193…200.Caire,P.(2007c).Anormativemulti-agentsystemsapproachtotheuseofconvivialityfordigitalcities.InBoella,G.,vanderTorre,L.,andVerhagen,H.,editors,NormativeMulti-agent 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