THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY - PowerPoint Presentation

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THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

George E. Davis, MD New Mexico Department of Children, Youth and FamiliesforChild Trauma Academy Slide2

Juvenile arrest rate highest ever in 1996 and then declined 48% by 2011Slide3

MALE AND FEMALE ARREST RATES—

TOTAL OFFENSESSlide4

MALE AND FEMALE ARREST RATES— VIOLENT CRIME INDEXSlide5

TOTAL JUVENILE ARRESTS BY RACESlide6

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

DEFINITION OF DELINQUENCY:An adaptive response to either a situation or a set of intrinsic neurological deficitsSlide7

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

FOUR POSSIBLE INTERPRETATIONS OF DELINQUENCY

CLUSTERED RISK FACTORS

SOCIAL / BIOLOGICAL ADAPTIVE

EPIGENETIC / TRANGENERATIONAL

SEQUELAE OF NEGLECT AND ABUSESlide8

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

RISK FACTORSDiverse and MultipleWell Documented (Vermeiren, 2003; Dodge and Pettit, 2003)INCLUDING:Neurochemical—serotonin

Neurological

Autonomic—

heart rate, temperature, blood pressure

Soft Signs—

EEG, balance, task performance

Neurocognitive

Decreased Frontal Activity—

planning, foresight, insight

Impaired Social Information ProcessingSlide9

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

MORE RISK FACTORS…Temperamental—emotionally reactiveGender—male vs female

Educational

—

learning disabilities, failure

Psychiatric Co-Morbidities—

anything and everything

Prenatal—

prematurity,

drugs, toxins and distress

Childhood Experience—

trauma,

loss, separations

Parenting—

disorganized,

inconsistent, abusive, neglectful, ineffective

Peers—

deviant

and delinquent

Substance use

—

all

kinds and any amount

Neighborhood—

dangerous and violentSlide10

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

RISK FACTORS (Stouthamer-Loeber et al, 2002)Factor AnalysisCumulative Risk:Children with no risk factors had a 2% chance of “serious and persistent delinquency” Children with five risk factors had a 71% chance

Particular risks can be specifically interactive with each other—

eg

, early abuse and male gender

Risks Are Not Equal and Do Not Activate the Same Pathways to Delinquency or Conduct DisordersSlide11

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

THE SOCIAL ADAPTIVE EXPLANATION OF DELINQUENCYHow does a child who is unparented, irritable, undersocialized, learning disabled, unskilled, and poor make his way in the world? Delinquency can become a “final common pathway” for an

adolescent without

many other

choices

Gang membership offers identity, hierarchy, respect, fraternity, vocation, and incomeSlide12

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

THE ADAPTIVE EXPLANATION OF DELINQUENCYAdaptation can be biologically driven as wellIn harsh environments certain developmental traits are selected by both genetic and epigenetic processes in order to increase survival valueIn families where life is hard, where children are unprotected and infants are scarcely nurtured, less sensitivity and more aggression are positive survival traitsSlide13

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

These two mice are genetically identical. They are epigenetic variants of the same DNA code from the same parents, first after being fed a routine diet and the second after being fed a particular amino acid supplement that changed the genetic expression. Slide14

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

EPIGENETICS—Significant ongoing modifications in gene expression that do not change the underlying DNA genetic codeEnvironmentally induced chemical changes on top of the gene structure itself—epigenetic Determine the activation and manner in which genes are translated into development

Heritable through several generationsSlide15

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCYSlide16

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

Of 442 young men followed from birth, those who suffered abuse and who also possessed the low activity form of MAO were four times as likely to have been convicted of a violent crime by age twenty-six. Of those with both risk factors (low MAO activity and childhood abuse) 85% developed some sort of antisocial behavior.

(

Caspi

et al, 2002)Slide17

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

Child abuse causes heritable epigenetic changes in the victim as well as subsequent generationsDrug abuse causes changes in the gene expression that goes to explain both the high relapse rate and the persistent tendency of subsequent generations to follow the same course. Slide18

THE BIOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF DEVELOPMENTAL TRAUMA

TRANSGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSIONAs part of a 20 year follow up of child sexual abuse (actually poly-abuse), the children of abuse victims were studied (Putnam,

AACAP,

2007)

The children of the victims were reviewed at 6 different time periods

The

study revealed the “enormous adversity” suffered

by both the victims and their offspringSlide19

THE BIOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF DEVELOPMENTAL TRAUMA

RESULTS COMPARED TO CONTROLS (Putnam, AACAP 2007)Repeat victimization X 2Self harm X 4Decreased cognitive capacity and performanceDecreased social competenceSlide20

THE BIOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF DEVELOPMENTAL TRAUMA

RESULTS COMPARED TO CONTROLS (Putnam, AACAP 2007)Cortisol dysregulationIncreased FSH/LH ratio (menstrual regulation)Increased ANA (autoimmune response)Earlier pubertyIncreased body mass index (obesity)Decreased vocabulary acquisitionSlide21

THE BIOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF DEVELOPMENTAL TRAUMA

RESULTS COMPARED TO CONTROLS (Putnam, AACAP 2007)Mean IQ of offspring is 87, compared to control mean of 95 in the controlsMore substance abuseMore domestic violenceMore virusesMore school absences12 times more headaches8-12 times greater risk for delinquency in girlsSlide22

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

WHAT ARE the CORE FEATURES of ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR OVERALL?ImpulsivityDysregulation of ArousalDysregulated Moods—Labile and Changeable

Dysregulated

Behavior—Explosive and Aggressive

Poor Interpersonal Relations—Impaired Attachments and Empathy

Impaired Frontal “Executive Functions”—like Insight, Introspection, Prediction, Planning, and PatienceSlide23

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

The CONSEQUENCES of ABUSE and NEGLECT SHARE the SAME CORE FEATURES as ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIORImpulsivityDysregulation of Arousal Dysregulated

Moods—Labile and Changeable

Dysregulated

Behavior—Explosive and Aggressive

Poor Interpersonal Relations—Impaired Attachments and Empathy

Impaired frontal “Executive Functions” like Insight, Introspection, Patience, Prediction and PlanningSlide24

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

The three fundamental effects of abuse and neglect all directly underlie the core behaviors of delinquent behaviorDysregulation of arousal

Dysregulation

of reward

Attachment disturbanceSlide25

THE REGULATION OF AROUSALSlide26

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

BASIC REGULATORY FUNCTIONS are NORMALLY ESTABLISHED in INFANCY and EARLY CHILDHOODThrough the protection of the infant from environmental and interactional stressorsBy the external regulation of the infant who is not initially capable of self-regulationSlide27
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THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

The PERSISTENT FEAR RESPONSE and the SIGNS of HYPERAROUSAL:ImpulsivityReactivityAggressionHyperactivityDIAGNOSED AS:ADHDBipolar Affective Disorder

Learning Disability

Conduct DisorderSlide29

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ATTACHMENTSlide30

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

Attachment and DevelopmentCritical, early and encompassingEarly Templates for RelationsThe Management of Aggression through EmpathySlide31

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

Empathy is a complicated derivative of the interaction of multiple neural networksThe core “social brain” components interact to first perceive the social signals of others, to then interpret them for distress, and to act on this information accordinglyThe components of empathy require early attachment and support by consistent and nurturing caretakersSlide32

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

Very early infant foundations of empathy are found in initial bonding operations: (Meltzoff and Decety, 2003)Imitation of facial expressionsResponse to distress calls of other infantsEye contact and response

Imitation of vocalizations

Refinement and advancement of empathic responses develop into early adulthoodSlide33

THE REGULATION OF REWARDSlide34

THE SOCIAL BRAIN

NEUROCHEMICAL DRIVEN ATTACHMENT“The pathways that mediate the hedonic properties of psychostimulants evolved as neural systems for social attachment.”

(

Insel

and Young, 2001)Slide35

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

REWARD AND REINFORCEMENTThe earliest source of reward is proximity and attention from the primary caregiverAttachment and close interpersonal interaction is driven and accompanied by the primary neurotransmitters associated with rewardThe reward circuit is activated by attachment in both the caregiver and the infantSlide36

THE SOCIAL BRAIN

NEUROCHEMICAL BASIS OF ATTACHMENT AND BONDINGAttachment and nurturing are highly rewarded activities early in lifeNeurotransmitters initiate and accompany early developing interpersonal interactions

Also the reverse: Nurturing and attachment behaviors stimulate the production of particular reward neurotransmitters and proliferate the neurons which produce themSlide37

THE SOCIAL BRAIN

ENDORPHINS (opiates)Overall decreased pain and increased well beingThe satisfaction of proximity in both mother and infant is mediated by

opioid

neurotransmitters

Endorphins promote a sense of safety and comfort for the infant in the presence of the mother

Administration of

opioids

decreases affiliation and attachment behaviors in both infant and mother rats

Opiates decrease caretaking behaviors in parents

Opiates reduce the pain of separateness and satisfy the craving for satisfying attachmentsSlide38

THE SOCIAL BRAIN

DOPAMINE (cocaine)Dopamine drives the central reward system, including but not limited to social interactions and attachmentBy rewarding certain actions and responses, dopamine directs the learning of attachment

Repeatedly separating rat pups from caregivers decreases dopamine production and increases reactivity to stress. It also increases sensitivity to cocaine as a reward.

(Meany, Brake and

Gratton

, 2002)

As the one of the end targets for the dopamine reward system, the frontal lobes organize and reinforce both addiction and attachmentSlide39

Emotional Neglect and

Substance Use

Lack of early life attachment leads to underdevelopment of reward systems

Therefore, the reinforcing effects of relationships or intimacy is minimal

External stimulation of these reward systems using dopamine-stimulating (e.g., cocaine) or

opioid

-like drugs becomes an alternative route to rewardSlide40

Commonly Applied Interventions

MedicationVerbal / Insight TherapiesCognitive / Behavioral InterventionsCoercive Contingent InterventionsCorrectional Interventions

HospitalizationSlide41

Relational (with another human

)Relevant (developmentally-matched)Repetitive (patterned)Rewarding (pleasurable

)

Rhythmic (

resonant with neural patterns

)

Respectful (

child, family, culture

)

Core Elements of Positive Developmental Experience

Bruce D Perry © 2010Slide42

ENDSlide43

ADVERSE CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES

(ACE) STUDY BY CDC AND KAISER17,337 Adult Subjects make up the Total Sample11% Emotionally Abused28 % Physically Abused

21 % Sexually Abused

27 % Exposed to Drug or Alcohol Abuse

19 % Exposed to Mental Illness

13 % Witnessed Violence Toward Their Mothers

23 % Lost a Parent due to Divorce or Separation

63 % Experienced at Least One Category of Negative Childhood Experience, and 20% had Three

TRAUMA and DEVELOPMENTSlide44

Definition of Adverse Childhood Experiences

Emotional AbusePhysical AbuseSexual Abuse

Emotional Neglect

Physical Neglect

Mother Treated Violently

Household Substance Abuse

Household Mental Illness

Parental Separation or Divorce

Incarcerated Household MemberSlide45

THE LONG TERM EFFECTS OF ADVERSE CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCESSlide46

THE LONG TERM EFFECTS OF ADVERSE CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES

Early SmokingChronic obstructive pulmonary diseaseHepatitisHeart disease

Diabetes

Obesity

Alcoholism

Fifty or more sexual

partners

Other substance abuse including IV drug use

Depression and attempted suicide

Teen pregnancy (including paternity)

Sexually transmitted diseases

Poor occupational health and poor job performanceSlide47

THE LONG TERM EFFECTS OF ADVERSE CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES

The findings of this study suggest that these experiences – ACEs – are the leading causes of illness, death and poor quality of life in the United States.Slide48
Slide49
Slide50

THE SOCIAL BRAIN

ENDORPHINSOverall decreased pain and increased well beingThe satisfaction of proximity in both mother and infant is mediated by opioid neurotransmittersEndorphins promote a sense of safety and comfort for the infant in the presence of the mother

The

amygdala

has high density of

opioid

receptors which are inhibited by endorphins resulting in the reduction of fear and promotion of safe and less vigilant

Both mothers and infants experience a sense of distress and anxiety when separated from one another based upon a drop in endorphinsSlide51

THE SOCIAL BRAIN

ENDORPHINS (cont)Administration of opioids decreases affiliation and attachment behaviors in both infant and mother ratsCocaine as well causes decreased activity of the core functions of the social brainOpiates and cocaine both decrease caretaking behaviors in parents

Opiates and cocaine reduce the pain of separateness and satisfy the craving for satisfying attachments

The special case of self harmSlide52

THE SOCIAL BRAIN

DOPAMINEDopamine drives the central reward system, including but not limited to social interactions and attachmentBy rewarding certain actions and responses, dopamine directs the learning of attachmentRepeatedly separating rat pups from caregivers decreases dopamine production and increases reactivity to stress. It also increases sensitivity to cocaine as a reward. (Meany, Brake and

Gratton

, 2002)

As the one of the end targets for the dopamine reward system, the OMPFC organizes and reinforces both addiction and attachmentSlide53

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

DELINQUENCY RESEARCH IDENTIFIES EARLY NEGLECT and ABUSE as a RISK FACTOR, but CALLS IT BY MANY NAMES“Contextual” “Poor quality childcare”“Inadequate parental discipline”“Maternal rejection”Neglect and abuse is portrayed as one risk factor among many, instead as the origin of risk itselfSlide54

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

“People with childhood histories of trauma, abuse and neglect make up almost the entire criminal justice population in the U.S.” (van der Kolk, 2004)Slide55

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

Children who are neglected and abused fill up the case loads of social workers, therapists, psychologists, child psychiatrists and probation officers. They first enter the child protective system, then transition to the psychiatric hospitals and residential treatment programs. They eventually enter the juvenile justice system and not uncommonly the adult correctional system as well.Slide56

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

ABUSED and NEGLECTED CHILDREN HAVE INCREASED RISK for DELINQUENCYAbused and neglected children were 11 times more likely to be arrested for criminal behavior (English, Widom &Brandford, 2004)In 150 Mexican females, child abuse increased the chance of substance use, antisocial behavior, and harsh discipline of their own children

(

Frias-Armenta

, 2002)

Research finds a significant relationship between child maltreatment and later delinquency. More mistreatment causes more severe delinquency

(Smith &Thornberry,1995)

632 males in inner city: abuse and especially neglect is highly associated with delinquency

(Lemmon,1999)

In males, the risk for later sexual perpetration was increased 3 times by prior sexual abuse

(

Glasser

&

Kolvin

, 2001)

Female children of sexually abused women have 8-12 times the risk for delinquency

(Putnam, AACAP 2007)Slide57

ENDSlide58
Slide59
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THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

FURTHER SUBDIVISIONS OF CHILD ONSET CONDUCT DISORDER“In samples of clinic referred youth…factor analyses have isolated a personality dimension characterized by a lack of guilt, lack of empathy, and lack of emotional expression that has been labeled callous-unemotional (CU) traits.” (Frick, Bodin and Barry, 2000)Slide61

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

CALLOUS-UNEMOTIONAL (CU) TRAITS (Frick, Bodin, Barry, 2002)Unconcerned about the feelings of othersDo not feel guiltUnconcerned about responsibilities (schoolwork)Do not show emotionsFail to keep promisesDo not keep friendsSlide62

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

Callous-Unemotional TraitsA subset of Childhood Onset Conduct DisorderReliably identified in samples as young as four y/oRepresents a stable personality trait over timeAssociated with more severe and persistent patterns of delinquency in adolescenceAssociated with more aggressionAssociated with an earlier onset of delinquency

Present with same associations in girls

Worse treatment outcome and prognosisSlide63

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

CALLOUS-UNEMOTIONAL TRAITSHigh comfort level with self-rated behavior Low fear for selfLow fear recognition in othersRole of the amygdalaThe relationship to impulsivity and antisocial behaviors

Empathy deficitsSlide64

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

9,578 twins with risks at four years old for both callous unemotional traits and conduct were followed between the ages of 7-12.The traits tended to be stable, and the most prominent traits at four presented the greatest risk for later delinquencySlide65

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

ASSUMPTIONS and THEORIES about CHILD ONSET CONDUCT D/O and CALLOUS-UNEMOTIONAL TRAITSBorn or made?Nature or nurture?Curable or even treatable?Psychopaths vs Sociopaths?Bad seed / good seed?Slide66

THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF DELINQUENCY

Callous-Unemotional traits are under extremely strong genetic influence without demonstrable influence of shared environment, whereas conduct problems in children with low levels of CU traits show moderate genetic and shared environmental influence (Viding, Blair, et al, 2005)Slide67

A word about corporal punishment…Slide68

Harsh physical punishment is associated with increased odds of mood disorders, anxiety disorders, alcohol and drug abuse/dependence, and several personality disorders even after adjusting for family dysfunction and socioeconomic variables. Approximately 2-5% of Axis I D/O and 4-7 % of Axis II D/O were attributable to harsh physical punishment.

(Afifi, Mota et al, American Academy of Pediatrics, 2012)CP STUDIESSlide69

1966 children were studied to determine the relationship between spanking before age two and later behavior problems when entering the school system at age six. Children who were spanked before age two had substantially more behavior problems at age six. (Slade and

Wissow, Journal of the American Academy of pediatrics, 2004)NOTE THIS APPLIES ONLY TO WHITE/NON-HISPANIC CHILDRENCP STUDIESSlide70

2461 children were studied to determine the long term effects of spanking before 3 years of age. The study determines that “even minor forms of corporal punishment, such as spanking, increase the risk for increased child aggressive behavior. Importantly, these finding cannot be attributed to possible confounding effects of other maternal parenting risk factors.

(Taylor et al, Journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics, 2010)CP STUDIESSlide71

The combined results of four separate studies conclude that spanking and other forms of corporal punishment are associated with risky and masochistic sexual practices. (Strauss, Presentation at the American Psychological Association Summit on Violence and Abuse in Relationships, 2008, Bethesda, MD)

CP STUDIESSlide72

806 children between 2-4 and 704 children between 5-9 were studied to determine how spanking might influence a child’s IQ over the course of four years. Children who were spanked had IQs between 2.8 and 5 points lower than children who were not. Those in the study who were spanked more showed a greater delay in cognitive development.

(Murray Straus, 14th International Conference on Violence, Abuse and Trauma, San Diego, CA, 2009) CP STUDIESSlide73

23 young adults (18-25 years old) who had experienced harsh physical punishment were compared to 22 healthy controls. The subjects who had experienced harsh physical discipline had gray matter volume in the prefrontal cortex that was reduced by 19.1 %. Exposing children to harsh punishment has detrimental effects on brain development.

(Tamoda et al, Neuroimage, 2009)CP STUDIESSlide74

A word about diagnosis in delinquency…Slide75

SUPPORTING RESEARCHEvidence from animal and human studies suggests that early-life stress such as physical maltreatment has long-lasting effects on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and is associated with blunted HPA axis reactivity in adulthood

(Quellet-Morin & Odgers, 2011) Translation: The stress response system in children is affected into adulthood by early maltreatmentSlide76

SUPPORTING RESEARCH

Maltreated/bullied children had lower cortisol responses than comparison children who exhibited a significant increase. Lower cortisol responses were, in turn, associated with more social and behavioral problems among maltreated/bullied children (Quellet-Morin & Odgers, 2011)

Translation: “stress biomarkers” can be identified as evidence of continuing physiological changes from early stress, and associated with conduct problems Slide77

SUPPORTING RESEARCH

Bullied and nonbullied MZ twins showed distinct patterns of cortisol secretion after the PST. Specifically, bullied twins exhibited a blunted cortisol response compared with their nonbullied MZ co-twins, who showed the expected increase. The experiment was replicated with identical twins raised in the same family. So the difference in physiologicl response to stress could not be attributed to children's genetic makeup, their familial environments

(

Ouellet

-Morin &

Danese

, 2011)Slide78

SUPPORTING RESEARCH

9,578 twins with risks at four years old for both callous unemotional traits and conduct were followed between the ages of 7-12.The traits tended to be stable, and the most prominent traits at four presented the greatest risk for later delinquencyWhat are the risk factors and warnings? early conduct problems, hyperactivity, family chaos, negative parentingSlide79

SUPPORTING RESEARCH

Genetic and environmental factors shape life-long vulnerability to depression. A particular gene variation (same gene but different variations) was found more susceptible to environmental stressors Environmental stress combined with this particular gene variation (G x E) led to higher rates of chronic depression (Uher & Caspi, 2011)Slide80

SUPPORTING RESEARCHAnother gene variant conferred resilience to the same sorts of life stressors, and protected the group possessing that variant from depression.

(Polanczyk, Caspi, et al, 2009)Slide81

SUPPORTING RESEARCH

Early childhood experiences can also confer resilience for the later life courseCertain children are resilient even in the face of bullying which might induce later conduct problems in their peersResilience was conferred by (you guessed it) “warm family relationships and positive home environments” (Bowes & Maughan

, 2010)Slide82

SUPPORTING RESEARCH

Children exposed to poverty, maltreatment or social isolation have enduring emotional, immune, and metabolic abnormalities that contribute to explaining their elevated risk for age-related disease1037 subjects were followed for 32 years. Those with adverse childhood experiences had nearly twice the rate of major depression, inflammatory conditions, high blood pressure, obesity and high cholesterol (Danese & Moffit, 2009)Slide83

SUPPORTING RESEARCHIn general, juvenile

psychopathy could be reliably assessed beginning in childhood, was fairly stable across short and long intervals, showed little mean-level fluctuation, and predicted delinquency across adolescence (Lynam & Charnigo, 2009)Slide84

SUPPORTING RESEARCH

Children experiencing maltreatment by an adult were more than three times as likely to report psychotic symptoms by age 12 Bulling by peers increased the incidence by more than 2 ½ timesExperiencing an accident did not increase the chances of later psychosis (Arseneault, Cannon, et al, 2009)Conclusion: It’s personal—intent to harm is the controlling factorSlide85

SUPPORTING RESEARCHIn the face of physical maltreatment, resilience against delinquency was also conferred by high intelligence and low index of antisocial traits in parents.

Vulnerability to delinquency was promoted by parental substance abuse and bad neighborhoods with low informal social controls (Jaffee, Caspi, et al, 2007) These findings suggest that for children residing in multi-problem families, personal resources may not be sufficient to promote their adaptive functioningSlide86

SUPPORTING RESEARCHThe effect of maltreatment on risk for conduct problems was strongest among those at high genetic risk. The experience of maltreatment was associated with an increase of 2% in the probability of a conduct disorder diagnosis among children at low genetic risk for conduct disorder but an increase of 24% among children at high genetic risk.

(Jaffee, Caspi, et al, 2005)Slide87

SUPPORTING RESEARCHAB in children with high levels of CU is under extremely strong genetic influence and no demonstrable influence of shared environment, whereas AB in children with low levels of CU shows moderate genetic and shared environmental influence

(Viding, Blair, et al, 2005)Slide88

Drugs of abuse such as cocaine trigger epigenetic changes in certain brain regions, affecting hundreds of genes at a time. Some of these changes remain long after the drug has been cleared from the system. Research in this area suggests that some of the long-term effects of drug abuse and addiction (including high rates of relapse) may be written in epigenetic codeSlide89

Child abuse is an environmental factor that leaves an epigenetic mark on the brain. In a comparison of suicide victims who were abused or not, only the abused victims had an epigenetic tag on the GR gene. Interestingly, the GR gene receives a similar epigenetic tag in

rat pups who receive low quality care from their mothers.Slide90
Slide91

THE SOCIAL BRAIN

“Interactions with caretakers are analyzed for reward value, then unconsciously applied to future situations.” (Cozolino, 2006)They can also be misapplied to future interactions resulting in prejudice, transference and what H.S. Sullivan called “parataxic distortions”Early social learning is heavily and unconsciously rewarded, and is therefore very resistant to changeSlide92
Slide93

END