IranÕs nuclear program began under Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi its founder was Akbar Etemad a physicist who led the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran from 1974 to 1979 He was forced into exile as the new Islamic egime came to power in 1979 because the countryÕs new leaders believed that the nu ID: 831632
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assassination,FereydoonAbbasi,Iraniannuc
assassination,FereydoonAbbasi,Iraniannuclearscientists,MajidShahriari,OmidKokabeearlyonemorninginNovember2010,ascientistwasdrivingtoworkinTehran,Iran.Asheandhiswifewaitedintraffic,amotorcyclepulledalongsidetheircar.AccordingtoanaccountbyNewYorkTimessecurityexpertDavidE.Sanger,ÒTherewasafaintÔclickÕasamagnetattachedtothedriverÕssidedoor.Thehugeexplo-sioncameafewsecondslater,killinghimandinjuringhiswifeÓ(Sanger,2011).ThescientistwasMajidShahriari,whomanagedamajorprojectforIranÕsAtomicEnergyOrganization,andhismurderwasnorandomevent.ForIraniannuclearscientists,infact,theperilsandpromisesofworkingintheirfieldarenothinglessthanShake-spearean.Thequestionforthemis,inaveryrealsense,Òtobeornottobe.ÓInthecourseofthelastfourdecades,thesesci-entistshavefacedintimidationandseverepunishment,includingprisonterms,atthehandsoftheirowngovern-ment.Inrecentyears,atleastfiveIraniannuclearscientistshavebeenthetargetofassassinationattempts(Raviv,2014)oftenattributedtoIsraeliintelligence.Regardlessoftheirsource,allsuchthreatsagainstscientistsÑinIranorelsewhereÑaremorallyindefensible.Theyalsooffendthescientificspirit,workingagainstthefreeexchangeofideasthatisnecessaryforsciencetothriveandhumanitytoadvance.Andinthefinalanalysis,wefirmlybelieve,thesethreatsagainstscientistsinIranundermineglobalpeace,becausetheytargetexpertswhoseinternationalcol-laborationisrequiredÑis,infact,absolutelycentralÑtodealeffectivelywiththenuclearrisksfacingtheworldtoday.Inverypracticalterms,killingnuclearscientistsmakesreducingthethreatofnuclearwarharder,ratherthaneasier.TheoppressionandassassinationofIransnuclearscientistsIranÕsnuclearprogrambeganunderShahMohammedRezaPahlavi;itsfoun-derwasAkbarEtemad,aphysicistwholedtheAtomicEnergyOrganizationofIranfrom1974to1979.HewasforcedintoexileasthenewIslamicregimecametopowerin1979,becausethecoun-tryÕsnewleadersbelievedthatthenuclearprogramwasuselessÒjunkÓimposedontheshahbytheWest,par-ticularlybytheUnitedStates.Asthechiefarchitectoftheprogram,EtemadwasforcedtoleaveIranforFrance.Onlyinrecentyears,aftercomingoutinfavorofIranÕsrighttopursueitscur-rentnuclearprogram,hasheapparentlybeenallowedtorevisithishomeland.IfEtemadÕsÒcrimeÓwasworkinginthenuclearprogramundertheshah,theyoungscientistOmidKokabeehasbeenlanguishingin
prisonnowformanymonthsbecauseherefusedto
prisonnowformanymonthsbecauseherefusedtoworkinthenuclearprogramthatthenewIslamicregimerestartedinthemid-1980s.Asanundergraduate,KokabeewasoneofIranÕstopengineeringstudents,andhewentontopursuegraduateworkinlaserphysics,firstinEuropeandtheninAmerica.DuringatriphometovisitHeckerandMilanihisfamily,theIraniangovernmentaskedhimtoworkonthecountryÕsnuclearprogram.Whenherefused,hewasarrested.InaletterhelaterwrotetotheheadofIranÕsjudiciary,hedescribespressuresbroughtuponhim,firstpush-inghimtoworkforthegovernmentandthen,afterhisrefusal,tryingtoforcehimtomakefalseconfessionsoftreason.Inasardonictone,hewritesthathehadbeenÒaskedtocooperatewiththemostsecretpartsÓofIranÕsnuclearprogram,butwhenherefusedhewasgivenafive-yearprisonsentencefor,allegedly,workingforaforeigngovernment.Sincehistrial,KokabeewasawardedtheAmericanPhysicalSocietyÕspresti-giousAndreiSakharovPrizeforÒhiscourageinrefusingtousehisphysicsknowledgetoworkonprojectsthathedeemedharmfultohumanityÓ(Ameri-canPhysicalSociety,2013).In2014,healsoreceivedtheScientificFreedomandResponsibilityAwardfromtheAmericanAssociationfortheAdvance-mentofScienceforÒhiscourageouswill-ingnesstoendureimprisonmentratherthanviolatehismoralstancethathissci-entificexpertisenotbeusedfordestruc-tivepurposesÓ(Zambon,2014).TheRouhaniregimehasjustgrantedhimaretrialafterthreeyearsofincarceration.IfEtemadandKokabeepaidwithprisonandbanishmentfortheirdecisionstoworkornotworkonIranÕsnuclearpro-gram,inrecentyearsotherscientistshavepaidwiththeirlivesforcooperationwiththeprogram.Toitscredit,theAmericanPhysicalSocietyhasnotonlypraisedKokabeeforhisresistancebutalsorespondedvigorouslyaftertheassassin-ationsofmultipleIraniannuclearscien-tistsinTehranbetween2010and2013.Inanopenletter,thegroupcondemnedthewaveofkillingsandreaffirmeditsÒbeliefthatsciencecanbeusedtopromoteinter-nationalpeaceÓ(Byer,2012).TheIraniangovernmenthasclaimed,withsomecorroborating(ifcircumstan-tial)evidence,thatforeigncountrieswereinvolvedintheseassassinationsÑand,almostneedlesstosay,theIranianregimehaspointeditsfingerattheIsraeliandUSgovernments.Abookbyanexp-eriencedIsraelijournalistandhisAmeri-cancolleague(SpiesAgainstArmageddon:InsideIsraelÕsSecretWars)seemstoallbutconfirmIranianclaimsaboutIsraelÕsroleinthissecretwar(RavivandMel
man,2012).Ofthosescientistswhohavepaidwi
man,2012).OfthosescientistswhohavepaidwiththeirlivesforworkingwiththeIranianregime,Shahriaristandsoutbecausehewas,atleastarguably,themostimportantphysicistkilledinthesecretwar.PraisedbysourcesinsidetheregimeasthemanmostresponsibleforrapidlydevelopingIranÕscapacitytoenrichuranium,Shah-riariisalsosaidtohaveplayedakeyroleintheregimeÕseventualsuccessinstop-pingthehighlysophisticatedStuxnetvirusthatapparentlydestroyedsome20percentofallofIranÕscentrifuges.Inadrive-bybombingofhiscarinNovember2010,anotherscientist,Ferey-doonAbbasi,wasalsoinjured.HewaslaterrewardedforhissufferingwhenhewasnamedasthenewheadoftheAtomicEnergyOrganizationofIran,whereheservedfrom2011to2013.Duringhistenure,heplayedanintransigentroleinnuclearnegotiations,andsincebeingreplacedbyanewdirectorhehasbecomeafiercecriticofthemoreconcili-atorypoliciesfollowedbythenewadmin-istrationofPresidentHassanRouhani.Othertopnuclearscientistsassassinatedduringthissecretwarincludetheassoci-atedirectorofIranÕsAtomicEnergyOrga-nization,DariusRezainejad,killedinJulyBulletinoftheAtomicScientists71(1)2011,andthevicepresidentoftheNatanzuraniumenrichmentfacility,MustafaAhmadiRoshan,killedinJanuary2012.EarlyinNovember2014,severalSyriannuclearscientistswerekilled,andaSyrianhumanrightsgroupallegedthatanIraniannuclearscientistworkingwiththemhadalsodiedintheattack.Iranhasdeniedthestory.TheIraniangovernmenthastakenpainstopublicizetheconfessionsofal-legedassassinsofscientistskilledinIran,withIranianmediabroadcastingclipsfromsecretsecuritycamerassplicedto-getherwithrecreatedscenesinÒdoc-umentariesÓthatsupposedlyshowhowthekillingstookplace.TheassassinsclaimedtobemembersoftheMujahedeenKhalgh(MEK)ÑagroupthathasbeenfightingtheIslamicregimeforalmostthreedecadesandthathasplayedaroleinexposingsomesecretaspectsofIranÕsnuclearprogram.TheallegedassassinsÒconfessedÓtohavingbeentrainedbyandworkedinconjunctionwithIsraeliandAmericanintelligenceagencies.TheIranianregimehasalsoomin-ouslyclaimedthatsomeinternationalscientificconferencesandcooperativeeffortsÑparticularlytheSESAME(Syn-chrotron-lightforExperimentalScienceandApplicationsintheMiddleEast)dedicatedtoestablishingaÒmajorinternationalresearchcenterintheMiddleEast/Mediterraneanregion,promotingpeaceandunderstandingthroughscientificcoo
perationÓÑareforumsinwhichUSandIsraeliin
perationÓÑareforumsinwhichUSandIsraeliintelli-genceagenciesdoreconnaissancetodis-coverIranÕstopscientistsandeithertrytoenlisttheircooperationor,failingthat,pickthemastargetsforassassins.(AftertheendoftheAhmadinejadadministra-tion,IranresumeditscooperationwithShahriariisthehighest-rankingscien-tistkilledsofarinadrive-bybombing.Butthemurderofnuclearphysicsprofes-sorMassoudAliMohammadishowsjusthowambiguousthesituationcanbecomewhenterrorbecomesatoolforintimidat-ingoreliminatingscientistsforworking(ornotworking)onnuclearprograms.MohammadiwaskilledinamotorcyclebombinginJanuary2010.HehadatonetimebeeninvolvedwiththeIslamicRevolutionaryGuardCorps(IRGC)andIranÕsnuclearprogram,buttheexactnatureofhisinvolvementhasneverbeenclear.Atsomepointitappearshebecameacriticoftheregimeandseem-inglyseveredhistieswiththecountryÕsnuclearprogram.Duringthepreludetothecontested2009Iranianelection,Mohammadiwasopenlycriticalofthestatusquoinhisclasses.ReportsfromfamilyandfriendssuggesthehadevenacceptedafellowshipintheWestandplannedtoleaveIran.Whenhewaskilled,theIraniangov-ernmentimmediatelyblamedforeignhands,butsoonthereaftercamewhispersthattheIslamicgovernmenthadbeeninvolved.IthasbeensuggestedthattheregimefearedhisdeparturefromIranorhisincreasingalienationfromtheregimeanddecidedtokillhim.Ahigh-rankingadvisortoRouhaniÕsnomineeforthepostofMinisterofSciencerecentlysug-gestedthatMohammadiÕsmurderwastheworkoftheregime,theFarsi-languagewebsiterajanews.comhasreported.WhytheassassinationofIraniannuclearscientiststhreatensworldscienceandpeaceThetruthofwhokilledMassoudAliMohammadiandotherIraniannuclearscientistsmightneverbeestablishedtoHeckerandMilaniacertainty.ButthepersecutionandintimidationofIranianscientistsÑfromoutsideorinsidethatcountryÑshouldservetoraiseseriousquestionsintheinternationalscientificcommunity.Isitstillsafeforscientiststocollaboratewithothersaroundtheglobe?Isitsafetotravelforthesakeofscience,orisscien-tificdiplomacysimplytoorisky?Thesequestionsareoftrulyglobalimport.Scientistsoftenprovideabridgebetweenoneintransigentgovernmentandanother.Scientiststhroughouttheworldsharethecommonlanguageofsci-enceandarespectfortheworkofscien-tists.Respectbuildstrust;trustliesatthecoreofworkingondifficultpolicyprob-lems,especiallyinthenucleara
rena.Scientistsinautocraticcountriesofte
rena.Scientistsinautocraticcountriesoftenconstitutetheverypocketsofcivil-itythatmustbereachedtodealwithcomplexnuclearissues.Basedontheexperienceofoneofus(Hecker),thesci-entistsinthenuclearweaponsestablish-mentoftheSovietUnionandnowRussiahavebeensuchanislandofcivility.JustimagineifAndreiSakharov,thefatheroftheSoviethydrogenbomb,hadbeentargetedforassassinationearlyinhisremarkablecareerbecauseheworkedontheSovietnuclearprogram.Inhismem-oirsheexplainedthatheunderstoodtheÒterrifying,inhumannatureoftheweap-onstheywerebuilding,Óbutstated:Iregardedmyselfasasoldierinthisnewsci-entificwar....Butaboveall,Ifeltmyselfcom-mittedtothegoal,whichIassumedwasStalinÕsaswell:afteradevastatingwar,tomakethecountrystrongenoughtoensurepeace.(Sakh-arov,1990:97,164)Sakharovwasascientist,apatriot,andahumanist.HebecameavoiceofcautionintheSovietnuclearprogram,tryingtoconvincePremierNikitaKhrushchevin1961nottotestthe100-megatonhydro-genbombSakharovhadhelpedtodesign.SakharovbecamedisillusionedandleftSarov,theRussianLosAlamos,in1968.Hewaslaterbanished,livingininternalexileunderhousearrestinGorky(nowNizhnyNovgorod)beforeGorbachevreleasedhiminDecember1986.Hethenbecamethesocialconscienceofthemovementtoendcommunistrule.OtherSovietscientistsworkedontheSovietandthenRussiannuclearpro-gramstheirentireprofessionalcareers,believingtheywerehelpingtomaketheworldsaferbyensuringthatnocountryhadanuclearmonopoly.TheywereessentialtoanorderlytransitionfromtheSovietnuclearcomplextotheRussiancomplexafterthefalloftheIronCurtain.Inanupcomingbook,oneoftheco-authorsofthisarticle(Hecker)andtwoformerRussiannuclearweaponsinsti-tutedirectorsdescribehowthescientifictiesbetweenUSandRussiannuclearsci-entistshelpedtomitigatetheenormousrisksinRussiaÕsnuclearcomplexresult-ingfromthebreakupoftheSovietUnion.ThescientistswerethefirsttoreachacrosstheideologicaldividetotackletheseissuesastheColdWarbegantothaw.Theycollaboratedoverthenext20yearstohelpkeepRussiaÕsnuclearassetssafeandsecureandtokeeptheirnuclearweaponscientistsathome,awayfromroguecountriesbentonbuildingcovertnuclearweaponscapabilities.Today,unfortunately,wefindtheUSandRussiangovernmentsonceagaindrivingthetwosidestowardisolation.Targetingandkillingscientificlea-dershasnotbeeneffectiveinendingorgreatlyinhibitingtheIr
aniannuclearprogram.MuchofIranÕsprogress
aniannuclearprogram.MuchofIranÕsprogressincen-trifugetechnologyandfacilitieshasbeenmadesincetheassassinationsbegan.BulletinoftheAtomicScientists71(1)Thenuclearprogramsofothercountrieshavealsosurvivedthelossofkeylea-ders.Forexample,J.RobertOppen-heimerlefttheManhattanProjectandreturnedtoacademiashortlyaftertheendofWorldWarII,asdidmanyoftheotherscientificgiantswhoworkedonthebombatLosAlamos.TheRussianprogramsawthedeparturesofIgorTamm,YakovZeldovich,andAndreiSakharov,threegiantsofSovietscience.Yetbothnuclearprogramscontinuedunabated,untilpoliticalleadersprac-ticedrestraintandendedtheColdWar.In2014,theIranianscientistOmidKokabeesentaletterfromprisontoMaryamMirzakhani,aStanfordprofes-sorwho,likeKokabee,wasagraduateofSharifUniversityinIranandwentontograduateworkinAmerica.Kokabeewrotewhatistantamounttohismani-festo,expressinghopeforaworldwhereallscientists,particularlyyoungscholars,canusetheirtalentandscienceÒfreefromintimidationandintellectualpressureÓintheserviceofÒpeaceandofaworldbereftoffearandterror.ÓWesharehisnoblesentimentsandhopethatonedayscientistsinIranÑnolessthaninotherpartsoftheworldÑcanconductresearchandexchangeideasinanatmospherefreefromterrorandintimida-tion.TheassassinationsofIranianscien-tistswerelikelyintendedbothtodecimatethatcountryÕsnuclearleadershipandtointimidateotherscientists.Butfearandbulletsdonotstopnuclearprograms;theybegetevermoresecretsandevermorehiddennuclearsites.Itisthelightofreasonandexchangedideasthatwillhelpsavetheworldfromthemostpoten-tiallyperilousconsequencesofnuclearpowerandcreatethetransparencythatis,inIranandelsewhere,thesinequanonofapeacefulnuclearprogram.Thisresearchreceivednospecificgrantfromanyfundingagencyinthepublic,commercial,ornot-for-profitsectors.1.Seehttp://www.sesame.org.jo/sesame.2.Seehttps://zm08.pobox.stanford.edu/service/home//?authco&locAmericanPhysicalSociety(2013)ImprisonedIranianPhysicsstudentawardedAPSHumanRightsPrize.Pressrelease,September23.Availableat:ByerR(2012)CondemningIranianphysicistassassin-ations.AmericanPhysicalSociety,February.Availableat:http://www.aps.org/about/govern-RavivD(2014)USPushingIsraeltostopassassinatingIraniannuclearscientists.CBSNews,March1.Availableat:http://www.cbsnews.com/news/us-RavivDandMelmanY(2012)SpiesagainstArmaged
-don:InsideIsraelÕsSecretWars.SeaCliff,N
-don:InsideIsraelÕsSecretWars.SeaCliff,NY:LevantBooks.SakharovA(1990).NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,Inc.SangerD(2011)AmericaÕsDeadlyDynamicswithNewYorkTimes,November5.Availableat:http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/06/sunday-ZambonK(2014)2014AAASScientificFreedomandResponsibilityAwardGoestoOmidKokabee,IranianPhysicistandPrisonerofConscience.,October27.Availableat:http://www.aaas.HeckerandMilaniAuthorbiographiesSiegfriedS.HeckerisaseniorfellowandaffiliatedfacultymemberatStanfordUni-versityÕsCenterforInternationalSecurityandCooperation(CISAC)andtheFreemanSpogliInstituteforInternationalStudies.HeisalsoaresearchprofessorintheDepartmentofMan-agementScienceandEngineeringatStanford.HeisdirectoremeritusoftheLosAlamosNationalLaboratory,whereheservedasdirectorfrom1986to1997andasseniorfellowuntilJuly2005.AbbasMilaniistheHamidandChristinaMoghadamDirectorofIranianStudiesatStan-fordUniversityandaco-directoroftheIranDemocracyProjectattheHooverInstitution.Till1986hetaughtatTehranUniversityÕsFacultyofLawandPoliticalScience.HislatestbookisTheShahBulletinoftheAtomicScientists71(1) MINUTES TO MIDNIGHTEndingtheassassinationandoppressionofIraniannuclearSiegfriedS.HeckerandAbbasMilaniMerelyforworkingintheirfieldofexpertise,IraniannuclearscientistsfaceperilsandpressuresthatarenothinglessthanShakespearean.Thequestionforthemis,inaveryrealsense,Òtobeornottobe.ÓInthecourseofthelastfourdecades,thesescientistshavefacedintimidationandseverepunishment,includingprisonterms,atthehandsoftheirowngovernment.Inrecentyears,atleastfiveIraniannuclearscientistshavebeenthetargetofassassinationattemptsoftenattributedtoIsraeliintelligence.Regardlessoftheirsource,allsuchthreatsagainstscientistsaremorallyindefensible.Theyoffendthescientificspirit,workingagainstthefreeexchangeofideasthatisnecessaryforhumanitytoadvance.Andinthefinalanalysis,theauthorsassert,thesethreatsagainstscientistsinIranundermineglobalpeace,targetingexpertswhoseinternationalcollab-orationisrequiredtodealeffectivelywiththenuclearrisksfacingtheworldtoday.Simplyput,killingnuclearscientistsmakesreducingthethreatofnuclearwarharder,noteasier.Photocredit:SAJADSAFARI/AFP/GettyImages.BulletinoftheAtomicScientists2015,Vol.71(1)4652TheAuthor(s)2015Reprintsandpermissions:DOI:10.1177/0096340214564140