The Urban Environment The Coastal Environment The Urban Environment Key terms Urbanisation The process of urban growth a city is deemed urbanised when 50 or more of the countrys population is living in urban areas ID: 604164
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Slide1
Unit 1 Exam
The Urban Environment
The Coastal EnvironmentSlide2
The Urban EnvironmentSlide3
Key terms
Urbanisation:
The process of urban growth – (a city is deemed urbanised when 50% or more of the country’s population is living in urban areas.
Urban sprawl:
The outward growth of urban areas
Suburbs:
Outlying districts of a town or city, often dominated by housing
Megacity:
A city of 10 million people or more
Sustainable:
Meeting the needs of people without damaging the environment or exploiting resources
Smog:
Mixture of smoke and fog
Mortality:
Death rate
Life expectancy:
Average number of years a person is expected to live
Deprivation:
Where a person’s quality of life falls below a level that is regarded as the acceptable minimum by the government of the country
Deprived areas:
Places where economic/social and environmental conditions are very poorSlide4
Causes of urbanisation in developing countries
RURAL TO URBAN MIGRATION
Poor social and economic conditions in rural areas
force
people to move to urban areas (
Push factor
).
(These push factors can include natural disasters, a poor harvest, poverty, poor sanitation, no clean drinking water)
People are then
attracted
(
pull factor
) to these urban areas in search of a better quality of life for themselves and their families.
Many people look forward to better job opportunities in the city, a better education for their children, improved sanitation and better access to health care.
Urbanisation in India
The city of Mumbai is a mega city. It has developed as a mega city due to rapid economic growth that it has experienced, which has attracted many rural farmers to move and settle in Mumbai looking for work within the manufacturing industry.Slide5
What key features can you identify from this image of a Mumbai slum?Slide6
Challenges and opportunities of urban growth in developing countries
Challenges
Opportunities
Urban slums
Squatter
settlements
Poor sanitation
Over crowded
Poor infrastructure
Congestion
Increased crime ratesFirst step for a better life for urban dwellersAccess to clean water, sanitation, education, health careOpportunities for employmentAffordable housing for poor migrantsHuge labour force who will carry out essential jobs that keep cities running and will accept a low wage
Case study: Mumbai
Fastest growing city in India
Population of over 15 million people
Half the population live in slums outside the CBD
Estimated half a million live on the street as ‘pavement dwellers’
Unable to cope with increase in vehicles on the road
Air pollution is a major threat to health
Many people have little or no access to clean waterSlide7
Poorly built houses with scrap materials for shelter
Poor sanitation – water here will be used for washing, cleaning, drinking, cooking and will contain many diseases, including untreated human waste
Cramped living conditions
Land used as waste landSlide8
Responding to the challenges of urban growth in developing countries
Key terms:
Self-help schemes:
People take responsibility for improving their own living conditions
Non-government organisations (NGOS):
Organisation that is independent of government control, usually charitable organisations such as WaterAid, Oxfam, Save the Children.
Urban areas are often the driving force for development in poorer countries, providing a large supply of cheap labour and an ever growing market industrial products.
For example:
Mumbai
, in India, creates nearly a quarter of the country’s wealth yet half of the city’s population live in slums.
Rio de Janeiro, in Brazil, slum dwellers provide most of the labour force for the construction industry across the city. In recent years, progress has been made in improving living conditions in many urban areas. This has been achieved with the help of government schemes, self-help schemes and non-government organisations (NGOs).Slide9
Improving urban environments
Green space:
Parkland and vegetated walkways in urban areas
Urban areas can be improved by including green space. This can be achieved by planning green space into new developments. However, at the same time urban waterways were frequently used as dumping grounds for industrial and human waste.
Economic development was often seen as more important than environmental protection and as a result the environmental protection as a result the environmental protection of many urban areas has suffered.
Why spend money on restoring the urban environment?
Improving living conditions for the urban residents
Encouraging people to want to live in urban areas
Attracting new businesses and a more sustainable economic future
Encouraging visitors and the development of tourism
Case study: Singapore River and the Kallang BasinPlan to move squatters into proper residential areas with sanitation facilitiesDevelopment of industrial areas with strict pollution controlsRiverside walkways and parks built, thousands of trees plantedRecreational facilities developed
2008 – plan to transform the waterfront into a gathering place for recreational & cultural facilitiesSlide10
Greening urban areas
‘Greening’ urban areas is about increasing the amount of green space in towns and cities.
Developing green gardens on the roofs of buildings
Planting trees alongside roads, railway lines, canals and walkways
Developing open spaces and parks
Why develop green space?
Increasing permeable surfaces to absorb rainfall
Reducing noise pollution
Absorbing excessive heat in the summer and making areas comfortable
Providing community space and meeting places
Providing a more relaxing, cleaner environment that may improve people’s healthSlide11
Key terms continued
Slums:
Often called ‘shanty towns’ in developing countries. There are different names for shanty towns around the world including favelas in Brazil.
Squatter settlements:
Where people have no legal rights over the land on which they live.
Brownfield land:
Old industrial or housing area that has become rundown or derelict.
Ecological footprint:
The impact of an individual an the Earth (measured in hectares per person)
Urban regeneration:
Improving social and/or economic conditions in run-down areas.Carbon-zero: Does not use resources that create carbon dioxide.Eco-homes: Homes that have a minimum impact on the environment.Green space: Parkland and vegetated walkways in urban areas.
Urban heat island:
Where a built-up area has a higher temperature than its surroundings.
Slide12
Environmental hazards in urban areas
How does urban growth increase environmental pressures?
A growing demand for transport increases vehicle emissions
Increasing demand for energy leads to building power stations – air pollution
Pollution from human waste and industrial waste
Increased number of buildings, reducing the amount of green space
Improving the urban environment: Curitiba, Brazil
Population of over 2 million people
Put in place a ‘sustainable urban master plan’
Curitiba has become a model of environmental management
A traffic-free city centreFully integrated bus systemDevelopment of green urban spaceRecycling of buildings
A public housing programme for the urban poor
Strict environmental laws to reduce industrial pollution
Environmental education is part of the school curriculumSlide13
Urban redevelopment and regeneration
Redevelopment
: renovation and improvement of areas that were previously run down
Case study: Birmingham
Britain’s second largest city
‘City of a thousand trades’ – wide range of manufacturing industries
Industrial decline left Birmingham with rising unemployment and increasing urban dereliction (previously used land/buildings fallen into disuse and decay), the factories closed and the canals fell into disrepair.
In the last 20 years Birmingham has transformed by a number of regeneration projects.
Examples:
New Street Station - £550 million redevelopment scheme
Bullring Shopping Centre – 2003 saw 140 major shops being openedNational Indoor Arena – opened in 1991, hosts sporting and music eventsBrindleyplace – Redeveloped canal basinSlide14
Brindleyplace
Mixed use redevelopment project (it has a mixture of uses, commercial, leisure, residential
Renovated factory buildings, flats and restaurants
Green space
Canal has been cleaned upSlide15
Managing movement in urban areas
Traffic is a growing problem in urban areas and is a challenge to many towns and cities.
This is because, as more people move into the cities care ownership increases, this puts pressure on the roads in the form of traffic and causes congestion. With increased congestion we may see a rise in road traffic accidents and an increase in air pollution.
In the UK it is estimated that 80% of personal journeys are made by car.
Managing movement - Case study: Cambridgeshire guided busway
Aim: To provide a high-quality alternative to car use on the congested A14 corridor
Opened in in 2009
Cost £116 million
A dedicated concrete track that can only be used by buses
Requires less land to build on
Land between the tracks are left open for drainageNo other vehicles can use the trackSmoothness gives an improved rideSlide16
Main features:
Links a number of villages between St Ives and Cambridge
Park and Ride facilities available
Fast service in Cambridge every 10 minutes
Paths next to the track for pedestrians and cyclists
Green space surrounding the tracks to encourage wildlife
The bus can go onto the track and on the main roadSlide17
Carbon-zero energy urban developments
Case study: BEDZED (Beddington Zero Energy Development)
Location: London borough of Sutton
Completed in 2002
UK’s first major energy development
Largest carbon-neutral eco-community in the country
Aim
– Develop an energy-neutral urban village that would be a viable socio-economic community.
Mixed use development
Residential and commercial buildingsSlide18
100 homes – houses & flats
Made of natural materials
Attractive modern interiors
Fuel efficient appliances
Includes:
Children’s nursery
Meeting rooms
Exhibition centre
Renewable technologies
All buildings have large windows and sunny rooms to allow for natural sunlight
Energy-efficient buildings – Buildings face south to maximise the amount of sunshine reaching each building. Also have double glazing and high levels of insulationRenewable materials- e.g. Timber came from renewable rainforests
Self-sufficient heating and power – a small-scale power plant fuelled by tree waste to provide hot water and solar panels to generate electricity
Low energy consumption – all heat from cooking is recycled and reused. All buildings use energy efficient light bulbsSlide19
Remember
A BEDZED home uses 90% less energy for heating
A BEDZED home uses 45% less energy for hot water
A BEDZED home uses 55% less energy for lightingSlide20
The Greenhouse development
Greenhouse is part of the new South Leeds urban regeneration scheme (improving social and/or economic conditions in run-down urban areas
Within a 10 minute walk of Leeds city
Close to the main rail and road networks
A former disused industrial building
Carbon-zero mixed use development site
172 eco-homes and offices
Plenty of green space
Includes:
Shops, Cafes, Playgrounds, Sports centre, Conference centre, High-tech offices, Allotments to grow fruit and vegetables
Greenhouse is sustainable
Ground-source heat pumps draw water from below the building and use heat-exchange technology to provide hot water, heating and air cooling
Wind turbine
Rooftop solar panels to provide hot water
Super insulation to keep homes cool in summer and warm in winter
Car pooling, ‘green’ cabs and buses running on renewable energySlide21
Britain’s eco-towns
Eco town
– Carbon-neutral and community based, with its own shopping area and local schools.
Eco-settlement
– Settlements that do not harm the environment because they meet the needs of people without damaging the environment or exploiting resources.
Fifteen sites across England were identified as potential sites for the first eco-towns.
Ten then selected for development.
They include old industrial sites, disused airfields and former Ministry of Defence land.
They are being built to how house builders how sustainable building methods may be used.
An
eco-town debate exists – supporters of the eco-town say the settlements will provide a healthy and sustainable environment, but local residents are concerned because they feel that the development may damage existing countryside and increase traffic problems.Slide22
Case study: Hanham Hall
First eco-village to be built in the UK
Disused hospital site near Bristol
Aim: “Create carbon-zero homes and eco-lifestyles”
200 homes
Open parklands
Local shops and cafes
Local schools, nursery
Community hall
Farmer’s shop selling local produce
Local businessesCar sharing
Bicycle storage
Links to public transport
Energy generated by biomass power
Recycling facilities
Open green space
Hedges around gardens
Cycle and walking routesSlide23
Cities for the 21
st
Century
Case study: Dongtan, China (eco-city)
Planners and architects say that it is not only possible to create more sustainable cities, it is vital because the world is becoming increasingly URBAN.
Past 10 years China’s urban population has boomed as millions are moving into the urban areas to seek employment and a better quality of life.
China is the world’s largest contributor to carbon emissions and the need for eco-living is critical.
Chinese government announced plans for 5 eco-cities, each housing 500,00 to 1 million people.
The first is Dongtan, which is being built on the island of Chongming, across the river from Shanghai (mega-city)
The city will connect to Shanghai by a 25km bridge and a tunnel, with road and rail links.Slide24
Dongtan key features:
Work
– Industrial and commercial areas will provide local employment opportunities
Residential areas
– Homes built along canals and will have wind micro-turbines to reduce energy bills. Local shops, schools, nurseries and a health centre near by.
The environment
– 60% of the land will be green space, pollution regulations will be enforced
Transport
– Dongtan will have fully integrated public transport system, solar-powered water taxis and hydrogen fuel-cell cars. Cycle paths and pedestrian walkways will reduce vehicle use.
Energy
– Rice waste will be used to fuel a power station, creating 65% of energy needs. The remainder of energy needs will be supplied by solar and wind power.Waste – The aim is to achieve 90% waste recycling, with human sewage processed for composting and waste water processed for use in farming.Slide25
Practice questions
Describe the characteristics of Dongtan (4 marks)
What is meant by the term ‘sustainable’? (2 marks)
What is BEDZED an example of? (2 marks)
Explain some of the challenges of urban growth in developing countries (5 marks)
What is a multi-hazard city? (3 marks)
With reference to examples you have studied, assess the impacts of living in a multi-hazard city. (8 marks)Slide26
The Coastal EnvironmentSlide27
Multi-use coastlineSlide28
Destructive waves
What are the characteristics of a destructive wave?
What effects does this wave have on the coastline?Slide29
Constructive waves
What are the characteristics of a constructive wave?
What effects does this wave have on the coastline?Slide30
Coastal processes
Erosion
Transportation
DepositionSlide31
Coastal weathering and erosion
Rock is broken down by
Mechanical
and
chemical weathering
Mechanical weathering that affects the coastline is
Freeze-
thaw weathering.
Waves wear away the coast using four processes of erosion.
Hydraulic action
– Waves crash against the rock and compress the air in the cracks.Abrasion – (corrasion), eroded particles in the water scrape against the rock.Attrition – eroded particles in the water smash into eachother and break into smaller fragments.Solution – Corrosion, weak carbonic acid in seawater dissolves rock like chalk and limestone.Slide32
Coastal landforms caused by erosion
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/coasts/erosional_landforms_rev1.shtmlSlide33
Rotational cliff slumping
Sub-areal processes
Cliff-foot processesSlide34
Coastal transportation
The movement of material along the beach by the process of
Longshore Drift
.
The four processes of transportation:
Traction
- Large particles like boulders are pushed along the sea bed.
Saltation
- Pebble sized particles are bounced along the sea bed.
Suspension
- Small particles like silt and clay are carried along in the water.Solution- Soluble materials dissolve in the water and are carried along.Slide35
Coastal deposition
Deposition is when material being carried by the sea water is
Dropped on the coast.
Coasts are built up when the amount of deposition is greater
than the amount of erosion. Slide36
Coastal landforms caused by deposition
Beach
Spit
Bar
TomboloSlide37
Coastal Management strategies
Coastal sea defences include
hard
and
soft
engineering.
Hard engineering
Hard engineering options tend to be expensive, short-term options. They may also have a high impact on the landscape or environment and be unsustainable.Slide38
Type of defence
Pros and cons
Building a sea wall
A wall built on the edge of the coastline.
Waves in
Porthleven
during a storm
Advantages
Protects the base of cliffs, land and buildings against erosion. Can prevent coastal flooding in some areas.
Disadvantages
Expensive to build. Curved sea walls reflect the energy of the waves back to the sea. This means that the waves remain powerful. Over time the wall may begin to erode. The cost of maintenance is high.
Hard engineering solutions
Slide39
Building
groynes
A wooden barrier built at right angles to the beach.
Hopton
Sea Wall, Norfolk
Advantages
Prevents the movement of beach material along the coast by
longshore
drift.
Allows the build up of a beach. Beaches are a natural defence against erosion and an attraction for tourists.
DisadvantagesCan be seen as unattractive.Costly to build and maintain.Slide40
Rock armour or boulder barriers
Large boulders are piled up on the beach.
A boulder barrier in Nice, France
Advantages
Absorb the energy of waves.
Allows the build up of a beach.
Disadvantages
Can be expensive to obtain and transport the boulders.Slide41
Soft engineering options
Soft engineering options are often less expensive than hard engineering options. They are usually more long-term and sustainable, with less impact on the environment.
There are two main types of soft engineering.
Beach
management/ replenishment
This
replaces
beach or cliff material that has been removed by erosion or
longshore
drift.
The main advantage is that beaches are a natural defence against erosion and coastal flooding. Beaches also attract tourists.It is a relatively inexpensive option but requires constant maintenance to replace the beach material as it is washed away.Managed retreatAreas of the coast are allowed to erode and flood naturally. Usually this will be areas considered to be of low value - eg places not being used for housing or farmland.The advantages are that it encourages the development of beaches (a natural defence) and salt marshes (important for the environment) and cost is low.Managed retreat is a cheap option, but people will need to be compensated for loss of buildings and farmland.Slide42
Case study: coastal management in Holderness
The Holderness coast is in the north east of England. This is one of the most vulnerable coastlines in the world and it
retreats
at a rate of one to two metres every year.
The problem is caused by:
Strong prevailing winds creating
longshore
drift
that moves material south along the coastline.
The cliffs are made of a soft boulder clay. It will therefore
erode quickly, especially when saturated.The village of Mappleton, perched on a cliff top on the Holderness coast, has approximately 50 properties. Due to the erosion of the cliffs, the village is under threat.In 1991, the decision was taken to protect Mappleton. A coastal management scheme costing £2 million was introduced involving two types of hard engineering - placing rock armour along the base of the cliff and building two rock groynes.Mappleton and the cliffs are no longer at great risk from erosion.The rock groynes have stopped beach material being moved south from Mappleton along the coast. However, this has increased erosion south
of
Mappleton
.
Benefits
in one area might have a
negative
effect on another.
The increased threat of
sea level rise
due to
climate change
, means that other places will need to consider the sustainability of coastal defence strategies for the future.Slide43
Rising sea levels and coastal flooding
Global warming:
Global sea level is rising at a rate of about 2mm per year.
Has increased by about 20cm over past century.
This has resulted in
Melting Ice
and
Heating Oceans
. Slide44
Coastal areas at risk from flooding and erosion.
Rising sea level will mean coastal flooding will happen
more often and will cause more damage, especially in
low-lying parts of the world like Bangladesh. Slide45
Impacts of coastal flooding and erosion from rising sea levels.
Economic:
Loss of tourism
– many coastal areas are popular tourist
destinations. Flooding and erosion can put people off
visiting.
Damage repair
– Repairing flood damage can be extremely
expensive.
Loss of agricultural land
– seawater has a high slat content. Salt reduces soil fertility, so crop production can be affected for years after a flood. Farmland is also lost to coastal erosion, which has a huge effect on farmers’ livelihoods. Slide46
Impacts of coastal flooding and erosion from rising sea levels.
Social:
Deaths
– coastal flooding can kills thousands
Water supplies
– contaminated
Loss of housing
– housing built of the edge of or
near to the edge of cliffs
Loss of jobs
– Coastal industries shut down, loos of jobs from tourism (negative ripple effect)Slide47
Impacts of coastal flooding and erosion from rising sea levels.
Environmental:
Ecosystems affected by flooding:
High salt
content kills organisms, flood water can uproot
plants/ trees.
Loss of habitats:
Wildlife habitats destroyed.