Chapter 7 & 8 Overview - PowerPoint Presentation

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Chapter 7 & 8 Overview

Chapter 7

Cognition

Information-Processing Model

Encoding



The

processing of information into the memory systems

Storage



The retention of encoded information over time

Retrieval



The

process of getting information out of memory storage

The processing of many aspects of a problem is known as

parallel processing

Atkinson-Shiffrin Three-Stage

Model

Sensory memory

Short-term memory and

Working Memory

Long-term memory

Encoding

Explicit memories

(facts

) this is done through

effortful processing

Implicit memories

(skills)

which are

automatically processed

Ebbinghaus

curve



The

more time taken to learn something the less time you will need to relearn it in the future

Ebbinghaus

’ forgetting curve



forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with

time

Iconic

memory

-

sensory

memory of

visual

stimuli

Echoic

memory-

sensory

memory of

auditory

stimuli

(lasts longer)

Practice and Application of Memory

Mnemonic

d

evices

,

chunking

, and

h

ierarchies

all help to retrieve information

Testing Effect

More likely to retain information if you are consistently tested/quizzed on it

Serial position

effect



Our

tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

Flashbulb

memory



A

clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

Memory Loss/Struggles

Amnesia



loss of memory

Retrograde(long-term)



A

loss of memory-access to events that occurred

Anterograde(short-term)



Inability to

create

new

memories

Encoding

Failures(correct

penny)

Retrieval Failure Information is not forgotten it is stored, but if un-retrieved it came become almost blurry “Tip of my tongue phenomenon”Retroactive Interference New information blocks out old informationProactive Interference Old information blocks out new information

Memory Construction Errors

Loftus memory studies

Misinformation effect

Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an

event



“Smash

” vs “

bumped” when describing an accident

Source amnesia (source misattribution)

Attributing to the wrong source an event we have

experienced/heard about

Helps to explain

d

éjà vu

which is a

"mix-up" between sensory input and memory-recalling output

Thinking and Concepts

Concepts



Category hierarchies or groupings

Prototype



Can

one bird be more “birdy” than another?

Convergent

thinking vs Divergent

thinking

Problem Solving Strategies

Trial

and error

Algorithms



Step-by-stepHeuristic A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problemsInsight Sudden realization

Forming Good and Bad Judgements

Intuition



an

effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious

reasoning

The Representative

Heuristic



j

udging

the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or

match

The Availability

Heuristic



Estimating

the likelihood of events based on their availability in memoryOverconfidence we overestimate our ability Framing The way an issue is posed

Language

Phoneme



In

language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

English about 40 phonemes

Morpheme



A

meaningful linguistic unit consisting of a word, such as boy

Includes

prefixes and suffixes, such as boy(s)

Grammar



a

system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand

others

Language

Language Development

Babbling

stage-

4

months



One-word

stage-

12

months



Two-word

stage(Telegraphic speech

)

-

24 months

 After 24 months language tends to develop consistentlyChomsky: Inborn Universal GrammarLanguage acquisition device Given

adequate nurture, language will

occur

Universal

grammar



All

humans have the same basic building blocks, nouns, verbs

Overgeneralization

of grammar rules

Whorf’s

Linguistic

Determinism



The

idea that language determines the way we think

Chapter 8

Motivation, Emotion and Stress

Motivation

-

A

need or desire that energizes and

directs

behavior

Drive-reduction

theory



a

physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

Need(Food)



Drive(hunger)



Drive reduction(eat

)

Optimum level of arousal-motivated behaviors may increase or decrease based on arousal Yerkes-Dodson Law moderate arousal will led to optimal performance, but beyond that performance decreases Maslow’s hierarchy of needs-We must satisfy the bottom parts of the pyramid before we move on to the

top

Theories of Emotion

James-Lange

theory



our

experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli

Stimulus

 CNS automatic response= emotion

Cannon-Bard

theory



an

emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion.

Stimulus= CNS automatic reaction AND emotion SIMULTANEOSULY

Two-factor theory

(

Schachter

-Singer theory) to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousalStimulus CNS automatic response + cognitive label= emotion

Expressing Emotion

As humans a majority of our communication occurs non-verbally, from a firm handshake to a hug

Women also have greater emotional literacy, which also may contribute to their greater emotional responsiveness

Facial

feedback

This is the tendency of facial muscles to actually influence or trigger the corresponding feeling such as happiness or anger

Stress

Stressors in life

Catastrophes

 unpredictable, large-scale

events

Significant

life changes

 life transitions

Daily

hassles

 events that do not change our lives but create a hassle

Selye’s

General adaptation syndrome (GAS)

Phase 1



Alarm

Phase

2 ResistancePhase 3 ExhaustionThe human body deals well with temporary stress, but prolonged stress can damage it Type A versus Type B-

individuals