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Slide1
Birth and Physical Development during the First Three Years
Chapter 4
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Slide2Learning Outcomes4.1 Specify how childbirth has childbirth has changed in developed countries
4.2 Describe the birth process4.3 Describe the adjustment of a healthy newborn and the techniques for assessing its health4.4 Explain potential complications of childbirth and the prospects for infants with complicated births
4.5 Identify the factors affecting infants’ chances for survival and health4.6 Discuss the patterns of physical growth and development in infancy4.7 Describe infants’ motor development
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Slide3Childbirth and Culture: How Birthing H
as ChangedPre 20th Century:Birthing was a modest “female only” ritual
Use of midwives was predominantDeath rates high for mother and baby One out of four babies died in first yearModern Generations: Dramatic reductions in death rate due to:AntibioticsPrenatal care
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Slide4“Humanizing” Childbirth:A Social Trend
Home births have brought back intimacy of eventBirthing centers and hospitalsSoft lightsFather or partner as coachBaby stays in room
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Slide5Birth ProcessParturition
– brings on laborTwo weeks before deliveryUterine contractionsCervix becomes flexibleStimulated by rising estrogen levels
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Slide6Three Stages of Vaginal Childbirth
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Slide7Stages of ChildbirthFirst:
Longest, typically 12–14 hours for first child, cervix dilatesSecond: 1–2 hours, contractions stronger and closer together, baby’s head moves through birth canal; Stage 2 ends with baby emerging from mother’s bodyThird:
10–60 minutes, placenta and umbilical cord expelled from mother
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Slide8Fetal Monitoring
Electronic monitoring can track the fetus’s heart rate during deliveryUsed in 89% of live births in the U.S. in 2004Sometimes can have false positive rate indicating the fetus is in trouble when they are not
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Slide9Cesarean Delivery
Cesarean delivery: Surgically removing baby from uterus through abdomenOver 30% of all U.S. births
Often used when labor progresses slowlyChanging preferences among women and some physiciansCommon with: First and/or large babies Older moms
Mothers with previous C-sections
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Slide10Unmedicated Delivery
Natural Childbirth
Mother receives training in fitness, breathing and relaxationTraditional cultures - Use of doula Experienced helper provides emotional support to motherPrepared ChildbirthLamaze
Mother learns to substitute other responses for feelings of pain
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Slide11Medicated Deliveries
Local or regional anesthesiaBlocks pain receptors in brain
Relaxing analgesicApproximately 60% of women choose pain relief during labor
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Slide12Size and Appearanceof the Newborn
Average neonate is: 20 inches long7.5 poundsFontanels – soft plates of headLanugo – fuzzy prenatal hair
Vernix caseosa – oily protection against infection
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Slide13Body Systems of the Newborn
Breathing: Anoxia or hypoxia can lead to birth traumaMeconium
Stringy waste in fetal intestinal tractNeonatal JaundiceYellowing of skin and eyeballsCaused by immaturity of the liverHalf of all babies experienceUsually baby does not need treatment
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Slide14Assessments: Apgar Scale
Sign
01
2
A
ppearance
Blue and pale
Body pink, limbs blue
All pink
P
ulse
Absent
Slow (< 100)
Rapid
G
rimace
None
Grimace
Coughing and crying
A
ctivity
Limp
Weak
Strong
R
espiration
Absent
Irregular, slow
Good, crying
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Slide15Assessments: Brazelton NBAS
Tests responses to physical and social environmentMotor organizationReflexesAttention and interactive capacityCNS instability
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Slide16Neonatal Screening TestsHelp detect correctable disorders
PKUGalactosemiaHypothyroidism
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Slide17Infant Arousal States
State
EyesBreathing
Movement
Regular Sleep
Closed
Regular, slow
None
Irregular Sleep
Closed
Irregular
Twitching
Drowsiness
Open or closed
Irregular
Some activity
Alert Inactivity
Open
Even
Quiet
Wakeful and Crying
Open
Irregular
Much activity
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Slide18Childbirth ComplicationsBirth trauma
PostmaturityPrematurityLow birth weight
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Slide19Low Birthweight
Weighing less than 5 ½ lbs.Very low birth weight - less than 3 ½ lbs.15.5% of all births, most in developing countriesPrematurity and low birth weight are the second-leading cause of infant death, after birth defects
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Slide20Maternal Traits That Increase Risk of Low Birth Weight
Underage or overageUneducated and poor
Poor nutritionSmoking and drinkingStressInfections and high blood pressure
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Slide21Immediate Treatment for Prematurity
Intravenous feedingSurfactantIsolette – controlled environment, like an incubatorKangaroo care
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Slide22Long-Term Outcomes ofLow Birth Weight
Greater risk of:Neurological and cognitive impairmentLower academic achievementSocial, behavioral, and attention problems
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Slide23Postmaturity & Stillbirth
Postmature: 42 weeks or moreStillbirth: Death of fetus at or after 20th week of gestationReduction may be due to fetal monitoringAmbiguous loss
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Slide24Death during InfancyPrimary causes worldwide:
Preterm deliverySepsis or pneumoniaAsphyxiation at birthBirth defects are leading cause in the U.S.Improvement in U.S. infant mortality rates likely due to SIDS awareness
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Slide25SIDSSudden Infant Death Syndrome
“Crib death”Sudden death of infant under 1 year of ageCause of death unexplainedMay have underlying biological defect (heart gene mutations)May be associated with sleeping on stomach
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Slide26Deaths from Injuries
90% of injury deaths in infancy due to:SuffocationMotor vehicle accidentsDrowningResidential fires or burns
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Slide27Immunizations
About 90% all children today are vaccinatedSome regions are better vaccinated than othersNo causal connection between vaccines and autism or other disorders
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Slide28Proportions of Physical Growth
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Slide29Growth: Height and Weight
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Slide30Nutrition: Breast Feeding
Breast milk almost always the best foodMore digestible
Reduces allergic reactionsMinimizes numerous infectionsMay reduce risk of SIDSBetter cognitive performanceRecommendation is babies exclusively breast-feed for 6 months
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Slide31Bottle FeedingFormula should be iron-fortified
Necessary for women with infectious illnessesDoes NOT reduce emotional bonding between mother and baby
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Slide32Other Nutritional ConcernsSolid food introduced second half of first year
MalnutritionOverweight6% of U.S. infants classified as overweightParental obesity strong predictor
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Slide33Brain Growth
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Slide34Research in Action:Lessons from Neuroscience
Brains develop over timeSocial environment is factor in brain developmentBrains are capable of changeComplex, integrated dynamic organLong term stress can be damaging
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Slide35Parts of Brain
CerebrumCorpus callosum joins two halvesFour lobes
FrontalParietalOccipitalTemporal
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Slide36Brain Cells
Neurons: Send and receive informationGlia: Nourish and protect neuronsNeurotransmitters: Chemical messengersMyelination: Fatty substance helps send faster signals
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Slide37Reflexes: Unlearned & Protective Behaviors
PosturalReactions to changes in posture or balance
LocomotorResemble later-appearing voluntary movementsWalking and swimming reflexes
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Slide38Research in Action: The Autism “Epidemic”
Autism disorders are brain disorders characterized by a lack of normal social interactions, impaired communications, repetitive movements, and a highly restricted range of activities and interestsAsperger syndromeGenetic factorsEnvironmental factorsEarly interventions
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Slide39Role of Experiencein Brain Development
Postnatal brain is molded by developmentPlasticity
Threats Sensory impoverishment MalnutritionCorrective experiences can relieve past deprivations
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Slide40Early Human Reflexes
MoroDarwinianTonic neck
RootingBabkin and BabinskiWalking and Swimming
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Slide41Early Senses of Touch & PainTouch
First sense to developRooting reflexAble to experience pain at birth
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Slide42Early Senses of Smell & TasteBegins to develop in womb
Newborns prefer sweet tastesFluids and odors may be transmitted through amniotic fluid
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Slide43Nature vs. Nurture?
Odor preference requires experience
6-day-olds prefer mother’s breast pad to another nursing mother’sCertain tastes are innate Sweetened water calms crying newborns, whether full-term or premature
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Slide44Sense of HearingFunctional before birth
3-day-olds can tell new speech sounds from ones they’ve already heard
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Slide45Sense of SightThe sense least developed at birth
20/20 reached by about 6 monthsBinocular vision (depth) develops around 4.5 months
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Slide46Milestones of Motor Development
Skill
Age 90% of Children MasterRolling over
5.4 months
Grasping rattle
3.9 months
Standing alone
13.7 months
Walking well
14.9 months
Building tower of cubes
20.6 months
Copying circle
4 years
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Slide47Denver Developmental Screening TestGross motor skills
Fine motor skills“Average”Head controlHand controlLocomotion
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Slide48Walk & Gibson: The Visual CliffDo infants perceive depth?
6-month-old babies would approach “ledge,” but avoided “drop”Demonstrated depth perception
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Slide49Thelen’s Dynamic Systems Theory
Learning occurs through detecting the many features of an environmentWith experience, babies learn to gauge their environment
Is that ball moving away from me?Is that ground too rough to walk on?
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Slide50Cultural Influences on Motor Development
Depends on the
pace of the cultureAfrican and West Indian cultures actively encourage early motor strength Bouncing and stepping exercisesOther cultures discourage … Ache mothers pull infants
to their laps when they crawl away
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