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The Appendix
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Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning: Thorndike's Law of Effect
Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning: Skinner
Shaping Reinforcement and Punishment Schedules of Reinforcement Operant Conditioning
Learning > Operant Conditioning
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The law of effect states that responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again, while responses that produce a discomforting effect are less likely to be repeated.
Edward L. Thorndike first studied the law of effect by placing hungry cats inside puzzle boxes and observing their actions. He quickly realized that cats could learn the efficacy of certain behaviors and would repeat those behaviors that allowed them to escape faster.The law of effect is at work in every human behavior as well. From a young age, we learn which actions are beneficial and which are detrimental through a similar trial and error process.
While the law of effect explains behavior from an external, observable point of view, it does not account for internal, unobservable processes that also affect the behavior patterns of human beings.Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning: Thorndike's Law of Effect
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Thorndike's puzzle box
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Learning > Operant ConditioningSlide6
B. F. Skinner, a behavioral psychologist and a student of E. L. Thorndike, contributed to our view of learning by expanding our understanding of conditioning to include operant conditioning.
Skinner theorized that if a behavior is followed by reinforcement, that behavior is more likely to be repeated, but if it is followed by punishment, it is less likely to be repeated.Skinner conducted his research on rats and pigeons by presenting them with positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, or punishment in various schedules that were designed to produce or inhibit specific target behaviors.
Skinner did not include room in his research for ideas such as free will or individual choice; instead, he posited that all behavior could be explained using learned, physical aspects of the world, including life history and evolution.Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning: Skinner
B. F. Skinner
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Learning > Operant ConditioningSlide7
B. F. Skinner used shaping—a method of training by which successive approximations toward a target behavior are reinforced—to test his theories of behavioral psychology.
Shaping involves a calculated reinforcement of a "target behavior": it uses operant conditioning principles to train a subject by rewarding proper behavior and discouraging improper behavior.The method requires that the subject perform behaviors that at first merely resemble the target behavior; through reinforcement, these behaviors are gradually changed or "shaped" to encourage the target behavior itself.
Skinner's early experiments in operant conditioning involved the shaping of rats' behavior so they learned to press a lever and receive a food reward.Shaping is commonly used to train animals, such as dogs, to perform difficult tasks; it is also a useful learning tool for modifying human behavior.Shaping
Dog show
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Learning > Operant ConditioningSlide8
"Reinforcement" refers to any consequence that increases the likelihood of a particular behavioral response; "punishment" refers to a consequence that decreases the likelihood of this response.
Both reinforcement and punishment can be positive or negative. In operant conditioning, positive means you are adding something and negative means you are taking something away.Reinforcers can be either primary (linked unconditionally to a behavior) or secondary (requiring deliberate or conditioned linkage to a specific behavior).
Primary—or unconditioned—reinforcers, such as water, food, sleep, shelter, sex, touch, and pleasure, have innate reinforcing qualities.Secondary—or conditioned—reinforcers (such as money) have no inherent value until they are linked or paired with a primary reinforcer.Reinforcement and Punishment
Operant conditioning
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Learning > Operant ConditioningSlide9
The Reinforcement – Punishment GridSlide10
A reinforcement schedule is a tool in operant conditioning that allows the trainer to control the timing and frequency of reinforcement in order to elicit a target behavior.
Continuous schedules reward a behavior after every performance of the desired behavior; intermittent (or partial) schedules only reward the behavior after certain ratios or intervals of responses.Intermittent schedules can be either fixed (where reinforcement occurs after a set amount of time or responses) or variable (where reinforcement occurs after a varied and unpredictable amount of time or responses).
Intermittent schedules are also described as either interval (based on the time between reinforcements) or ratio (based on the number of responses).Different schedules (fixed-interval, variable-interval, fixed-ratio, and variable-ratio) have different advantages and respond differently to extinction.Schedules of Reinforcement
Simple reinforcement-schedule responses
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Learning > Operant ConditioningSlide11
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AppendixSlide12
Key terms
aversive Tending to repel, causing avoidance (of a situation, a behavior, an item, etc.).behavior modification The act of altering actions and reactions to stimuli through positive and negative reinforcement or punishment.
extinction When a behavior ceases because it is no longer reinforced.interval A period of time.latency The delay between a stimulus and the response it triggers in an organism.Law of Effect A law developed by Edward L. Thorndike that states, "responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation."
paradigm An example serving as a model or pattern; a template, as for an experiment.punishment The act or process of imposing and/or applying a sanction for an undesired behavior when conditioning toward a desired behavior.ratio A number representing a comparison between two things.shaping A method of positive reinforcement of behavior patterns in operant conditioning.successive approximation An increasingly accurate estimate of a response desired by a trainer.trial and error
The process of finding a solution to a problem by trying many possible solutions and learning from mistakes until a way is found.
LearningSlide13
trial and error The process of finding a solution to a problem by trying many possible solutions and learning from mistakes until a way is found.
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LearningSlide14
Thorndike's puzzle box
This image shows an example of Thorndike's puzzle box alongside a graph demonstrating the learning of a cat within the box.
LearningSlide15
B. F. Skinner
Skinner was responsible for defining the segment of behaviorism known as operant conditioning—a process by which an organism learns from its physical environment.
LearningSlide16
Simple reinforcement-schedule responses
The four reinforcement schedules yield different response patterns. The variable-ratio schedule is unpredictable and yields high and steady response rates, with little if any pause after reinforcement (e.g., gambling). A fixed-ratio schedule is predictable and produces a high response rate, with a short pause after reinforcement (e.g., eyeglass sales). The variable-interval schedule is unpredictable and produces a moderate, steady response rate (e.g., fishing). The fixed-interval schedule yields a scallop-shaped response pattern, reflecting a significant pause after reinforcement (e.g., hourly employment).
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LearningSlide17
Operant conditioning
In the context of operant conditioning, whether you are reinforcing or punishing a behavior, "positive" always means you are adding a stimulus (not necessarily a good one), and "negative" always means you are removing a stimulus (not necessarily a bad one. See the blue text and yellow text above, which represent positive and negative, respectively. Similarly, reinforcement always means you are increasing (or maintaining) the level of a behavior, and punishment always means you are decreasing the level of a behavior. See the green and red backgrounds above, which represent reinforcement and punishment, respectively.
LearningSlide18
A Diagram of Operant Conditioning
This diagram explains the types of reinforcement and punishment methods (positive and negative) with examples of each.
LearningSlide19
Dog show
Dog training often uses the shaping method of operant conditioning.
LearningSlide20
Law of effect
Initially, cats displayed a variety of behaviors inside the box. Over successive trials, actions that were helpful in escaping the box and receiving the food reward were replicated and repeated at a higher rate.
LearningSlide21
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Learning
The idea that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences tend to be repeated is one of the main tenets of what theory?
A) Operant conditioning.
B) Behaviorism.
C) Classical conditioning.
D) The law of effect.Slide22
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"Operant conditioning."
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Learning
The idea that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences tend to be repeated is one of the main tenets of what theory?
A) Operant conditioning.
B) Behaviorism.
C) Classical conditioning.
D) The law of effect.Slide23
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Learning
Dr. McCoy wants to measure how quickly rats undergo operant conditioning in his experiment. Why should he use a Skinner box for this task?
A) It includes a maze for the rat to solve.
B) It records the number of lever presses the rat makes.
C) Being in the box is rewarding for the rat.
D) Being in the box is punishment for the rat.Slide24
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Learning
Dr. McCoy wants to measure how quickly rats undergo operant conditioning in his experiment. Why should he use a Skinner box for this task?
A) It includes a maze for the rat to solve.
B) It records the number of lever presses the rat makes.
C) Being in the box is rewarding for the rat.
D) Being in the box is punishment for the rat.Slide25
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Learning
Which of the following is an accurate definition of successive approximation?
A) Only the desired behavior is rewarded.
B) No reward is given for behavior.
C) Responses that approach desired behaviors are rewarded.
D) Reward is given for any behavior.Slide26
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Learning
Which of the following is an accurate definition of successive approximation?
A) Only the desired behavior is rewarded.
B) No reward is given for behavior.
C) Responses that approach desired behaviors are rewarded.
D) Reward is given for any behavior.Slide27
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Learning
Which of the following is an example of negative reinforcement?
A) Tommy learns that if he takes a bath he will get dessert.
B) Tommy learns that if he cries at bath time, he won't get his dessert.
C) Tommy learns that if he cries at bath time, he will have to go straight to bed.
D) Tommy learns that if he cries at bath time, he won't have to take a bath.Slide28
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Learning
Which of the following is an example of negative reinforcement?
A) Tommy learns that if he takes a bath he will get dessert.
B) Tommy learns that if he cries at bath time, he won't get his dessert.
C) Tommy learns that if he cries at bath time, he will have to go straight to bed.
D) Tommy learns that if he cries at bath time, he won't have to take a bath.Slide29
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Learning
Dog A is rewarded with a biscuit as soon as she follows the "Sit" command. Dog B does not get her biscuit for 10 minutes following her "Sit" command. What will most likely be Dog B's reaction to the next command?
A) She will sit, because she has linked behavior and reward.
B) She won't sit until she is given the biscuit.
C) She will sit, because she doesn't need a reward.
D) She won't sit, because she hasn't linked behavior and reward.Slide30
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Learning
Dog A is rewarded with a biscuit as soon as she follows the "Sit" command. Dog B does not get her biscuit for 10 minutes following her "Sit" command. What will most likely be Dog B's reaction to the next command?
A) She will sit, because she has linked behavior and reward.
B) She won't sit until she is given the biscuit.
C) She will sit, because she doesn't need a reward.
D) She won't sit, because she hasn't linked behavior and reward.Slide31
Attribution
Open Stax. "Operative Conditioning."
CC BY 4.0 http://cnx.org/contents/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@4.100:35/PsychologyWikibooks.
"Animal Behavior/Operant Conditioning." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Animal_Behavior/Operant_ConditioningWikipedia. "Law of Effect."
CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Effect
Wiktionary. "trial and error."
CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/trial+and+error
Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//psychology/definition/behavior-modification
Wikibooks.
"Learning Theorists."
CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Learning_Theorists#Edward_Thorndike
Wikipedia.
"Law of Effect."
CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law%20of%20Effect
Open Stax. "Operant Conditioning." CC BY 4.0 http://cnx.org/contents/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@4.100:35/Psychology
Wikipedia. "B.F. Skinner." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.F._SkinnerWikibooks. "Applied History of Psychology/Learning Theories."
CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Applied_History_of_Psychology/Learning_Theories#B.F.Skinner.281904-1990.29Wikibooks.
"Learning Theorists." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Learning_Theorists#B.F._SkinnerWikibooks. "Animal Behavior/Operant Conditioning."
CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Animal_Behavior/Operant_ConditioningWiktionary. "superstition." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/superstition
Wiktionary. "aversive." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aversive
Wiktionary.
"punishment."
CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/punishment
Wikipedia.
"B.F. Skinner."
CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.F._Skinner
Open Stax.
"Operant Conditioning."
CC BY 4.0
http://cnx.org/contents/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@4.100:35/Psychology
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LearningSlide32
Wikibooks.
"Applied History of Psychology/Learning Theories." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Applied_History_of_Psychology/Learning_Theories#B.F.Skinner.281904-1990.29Wikipedia.
"Shaping (psychology)." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaping_(psychology)Wikibooks. "IB Psychology/Perspectives/Learning." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/IB_Psychology/Perspectives/Learning#Operant_conditioning
Wikibooks. "Animal Behavior/Learning." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Animal_Behavior/Learning#Operant_Conditioning
Wiktionary. "paradigm." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/paradigm
Wikipedia.
"successive approximation."
CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/successive%20approximation
Open Stax.
"Operant Conditioning."
CC BY 4.0
http://cnx.org/contents/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@4.100:35/Psychology
Wikipedia. "Reinforcement." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ReinforcementWikibooks.
"Animal Behavior/Learning." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Animal_Behavior/Learning#Operant_ConditioningWiktionary. "latency."
CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/latencyWikibooks.
"Learning Theories/Behavioralist Theories." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Learning_Theories/Behavioralist_TheoriesWikibooks. "Applied History of Psychology/Learning Theories."
CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Applied_History_of_Psychology/Learning_Theories#B.F.Skinner.281904-1990.29Open Stax. "Operant Conditioning." CC BY 4.0 http://cnx.org/contents/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@4.100:35/Psychology
Wikipedia. "Reinforcement." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement
Wikibooks.
"Applied History of Psychology/Learning Theories."
CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Applied_History_of_Psychology/Learning_Theories#B.F.Skinner.281904-1990.29
Saylor.
CC BY-SA
http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/TLBrink_PSYCH06.pdf
Wiktionary.
"interval."
CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/interval
Wiktionary.
"ratio."
CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ratio
Boundless Learning.
"Boundless."
CC BY-SA 3.0
http://www.boundless.com//biology/definition/extinction
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Learning