Research Methods for Applied Linguists & Translators - PowerPoint Presentation

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Research Methods for Applied Linguists & TranslatorsDr Nazmi AlmasriSept 2017the Islamic University of GazaSlide2

Introduction to researchOutlineWhat is meant by research?Research purposeResearch CharacteristicsLimitations of research- considerationsExercise Next sessionSlide3

What is meant by research? Individually, list the first 3 key words that leap to your mind when you hear the word ‘research’. Compare your list with your partner’s & jointly write a definition: Research ............................ Slide4

What is meant by research?Compare your definition to these ones. Which one do you prefer most? Why?"a systematic process of collecting and analyzing information (data) for some purpose" (McMillan & Schumacher 1984: 4)."a systematic process of inquiry consisting of three elements or components: (1) a question , problem, or hypothesis, (2) data, (3) analysis and interpretation of data" (Nunan 1992: 3) “the systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled observations that may lead to the development of generalizations, principles, or theories, resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate control\ of events” (Best and Kahn 1993:20).Slide5

CharacteristicsWork in pairs to & in 2 minutes try to list 3 key characteristics of research.Slide6

CharacteristicsWhich of the following represent the main characteristics of research? Objectivity refers to explicitness & logicality in the procedures employed for collecting & analyzing data & the conclusions reached. There is no space for emotions or personal feelings to prove a point. However, absolute objectivity in research on humans is difficult to achieve.Systematic: if it follows clear procedural rules for the design of the research.  Empiricism: Research is characterised by observable experience or empirical evidence (data/ sources).Slide7

CharacteristicsPrecision: Research requires accurate observation and description techniques that are reliable & valid.Creativity: “Research involves gathering new [mine] data from primary or first-hand sources or using existing data for a new purpose” (Best and Kahn 1993:21). Verification: “Research design and findings are presented to the professional community for other researchers to critique, confirm, or reject. Research is a social enterprise, and its information is open for public scrutiny. . . . Only through further investigation or replication of studies can the results of a single study be confirmed or revised” (McMillan and Schumacher 1984: 5-6). Slide8

Characteristics7. Parsimonious explanation: “Research attempts to explain relationships among phenomena and to reduce the explanation to the most simple statements possible” (McMillan and Schumacher 1984: 5-6).8. Probabilistic thinking: “One misconception of research is that the results are absolute and that conclusions are true beyond a shadow of doubt. This is not the case. As noted by a leading educational researcher, ‘Behavioral science and research does not offer certainty. . . . . It does not even offer relative certainty. All it offers is probabilistic knowledge. If A is done, then B will occur’ (Kerlinger 1979: 28 quoted in McMillan and Schumacher 1984: 5-6).9. Patience and Perseverance: Research is an activity that requires perseverance and patience as researchers expect disappointment and discouragement as they investigate the question under study” (Best and Kahn 1993:22).Slide9

Limitations of research- considerations In conducting educational on human beings, the researcher is constrained by these considerations. Work in pairs and try to predict what is meant by each of them.Ethical and legal constraintsThe public nature of educationThe complexity of the research problemMeasurement difficultiesLimitationsSlide10

Limitations of research- considerationsEthical and legal constraints “The researcher is ethically responsible for protecting the rights and welfare of the subjects while conducting a study. Subjects must be protected from physical and mental discomfort, harm, and danger. Many studies require informed consent from the subjects, parents, or institution.Recent laws protect the confidentiality of the data and the privacy of the individual. . . . These [ethical] principles impose limitations on the kind of studies that can be conducted in valid and objective ways in education. Physical and mental discomfort may affect the length of testing periods, the replication of studies, the types of treatments, and ultimately the research question investigated” (McMillan and Schumacher 1984: 16).Slide11

Limitations of research- considerations“The public nature of education also influences the kinds of research questions investigated. Most studies make the subjects and other groups aware of the research topic. Some topics may be too controversial for a conservative community or too divisive for a staff” (McMillan and Schumacher 1984: 17).Slide12

Limitations of research- considerationsThe complexity of the research problem. “Human beings – students, teachers, administrators, parents, the collective community – are complex living organisms, and they actively select the environmental stimuli to which they respond. different individuals process the stimuli differently and respond in complex ways to the same stimuli. . . . . The educational researcher thus deals simultaneously with many variables, often ambiguous ones, in a single study.behavior cannot be meaningfully studied outside the context of real life . . . . Thus, educational researchers not only must contend with individual differences among people, they must also consider a myriad of situational elements” (McMillan and Schumacher 1984: 17).Slide13

Limitations of research- considerationsMeasurement difficulties:“Educational research measures complex human characteristics, thinking and problem-solving skills. The measurement of achievement, intelligence, leadership styles, group interaction, or readiness skills involves conceptual definitions and issues of validity and reliability” (McMillan and Schumacher 1984: 17).Slide14

Different types of researchdifferent ways of classifying researchsecondary researchlibrary research (term paper)literature review in a given topicPrimary research based on primary or original data (e.g. tests scores, classroom observations, questionnaires, interviews )Slide15

Different types of primary research 2 most common ones : Quantitative and Qualitative They mainly differ ontype of data (quantitative or qualitative)manner of data collection (experimental or non-experimental [naturalistic])method of analysis (interpretative or statistical)For more differences and more clarification look at Table 1.1. in Mackey & Gass P 2. consider the 2 abstracts of 2 research reports in Mackey & Gass P 3Slide16

Different types of primary researchQualitative research: based predominantly on non-numerical data and is concerned with understanding and interpretation. It uses the following techniques for collecting dataObservations / field notesCase studiesDiariesSlide17

Different types of research2. Quantitative/Statistical research based predominantly on numerical data measurement. It uses these techniques for collecting dataDescriptive: describes a sample in numerical termsExploratory: examine correlations among variablesQuasi-experimental: compares group behaviour in probabilistic terms under controlled conditions using intact groupsExperimental studies group behviour in probabilistic terms under controlled conditions using random assignment to groupsSlide18

Different types of researchCommentsThis binary distinction bet qualitative & quantitative research is recently considered simplistic & naïve as no clear line separates them.the way data collected, classified and interpreted can be done in qual. and quan. ways. E.g questionnaires & interviews can pose open-response questions to gather non-numerical data or closed Qs to gather numerical (quantifiable) data.Understanding this broad definition and knowing these types would enable you to decide which type or types of research you are going to choose. More details about how to conduct these 2 main types of research will be discussed laterSlide19

What is a research report? (Structure of a Research Paper)3 minimum components A questionData Data analysis & interpretationSlide20

What is a research report? (Structure of a Research Paper) Typical Research Paper Format (Mackey & Gass P5-6)Slide21

What is a research report? (Structure of a Research Paper)Detailed outline of componentsTitle pageAbstractIntroductionReview of literatureResearch hypotheses MethodologyResults and analysisDiscussion, implications , conclusions

References

Appendices

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What is a research report? (Structure of a Research Paper)Title page The APA Publication Manual recommends titles be 10 to 12 words long (APA, 2010, p. 23 in Griffee: 18).Strategy: list keywords from the paper, and using those key words, arrange them in multiple ways to create several possible titles.Languages and education for intercultural communication in Palestine Languages and culture for intercultural communication in Palestine Education, language and translation for crossing borders of Palestine Crossing borders of foreign language education and translation in Palestine Slide23

What is a research report? (Structure of a Research Paper)2. AbstractLook at the abstract example in Mackey & Gass (p7) & try to find what elements are included?What is the average number of words an abstract should have?Look at the abstract example in Mackey & Gass:p7 and try to find what elements are included?What format and size should an abstract have(spacing, font type and size)?Slide24

What is a research report? (Structure of a Research Paper)2. AbstractWhat is an abstract? Summary of the topic researched and major findings Every sentence carries an idea (conciseness)Look at the abstract example in Mackey & Gass:p7 and try to find what elements are included? a statement of topic,the purpose of the article,a brief description of participants,Method used in the research,statistical analysis useda summary of results, conclusions and implications for the fieldSlide25

What is a research report? (Structure of a Research Paper)c. What format and size should an abstract have(spacing, font type and size)? 100 to 200 words,single-spaced with no indentations Often universities, journals & conference provide specific formats for abstract submission(Brown 1988 and Tuckman 1999 in Griffee: 20)Sample abstracts (observe – imitate –create) read 3-4 articles in 2 highly reputed international journals and look how each begins and what elements are included and what length and format they have. Slide26

What is a research report? (Structure of a Research Paper) 3. IntroductionProvides background information out the research:research purpose/ general goalwhy this topic is interesting and important a statement of the problem using the present tensehistorical overview (examples in Mackey and Gass: 7-8)research questions/hypotheses: examples in Mackey & Gass:20.One example of a complete introduction in Griffee:28f.Sample introductions (observe – imitate –create) read 3-4 articles in 2 highly reputed international journalsSlide27

What is a research report? (Structure of a Research Paper) 3. Introduction: research questionsList 3 main characteristics of appropriate research questions? Slide28

What is a research report? (Structure of a Research Paper)3. Introduction: research questionsList 3 main characteristics of appropriate research questions? Uneasy to identify appropriate research questions which need to address current issues are sufficiently narrow and specificcan be answeredWhat do you think of this research question? "What is the effect of the native language on the learning of a second or foreign language?"Slide29

What is a research report? (Structure of a Research Paper)4. Literature Review – to be discussed in one separate sessionSlide30

What is a research report? (Structure of a Research Paper)6. Methodology6.1 Which of these elements can you include in the methodology section?ParticipantsMaterials ProceduresAnalysis 6.2 What do we include in each of the elements above?Slide31

What is a research report? (Structure of a Research Paper)6. MethodologyParticipants: socio-economic background, number, sex, age, nationality, native language, linguistic level, etc.) Materials (description of actual materials used in the study): texts, sentence, emails, pictures, etc. (Mackey & Gass:10) but does not specify how they were used. The procedures section provides that information.Slide32

What is a research report? (Structure of a Research Paper)6. Methodologyc. Procedures: include logistical issues related to:How was each tool/ instrument (test, interview, questionnaire)used in collecting data? what did the participants do?For example, if a questionnaire was administered, readers want to knowhow many students actually filled it out,what were the environmental conditions (room, time of day), and how long it took to complete the questionnaire. Example (Mackey & Gass:11)Slide33

What is a research report? (Structure of a Research Paper)6. Methodologyd. Analysishas various names including data analysis, design & statistical proceduresscoring & statistical procedures used in analysing the resultsIn some research reports, the mode of analysis may be a separate section or maybe included in the results section.Purpose: inform readers how the data were analyzed in order to answer the research questions. 2 examples in Mackey & Gass p12. 2 examples Griffee 32- 33

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What is a research report? (Structure of a Research Paper)7. Results7.1 How are the results introduced? 7.2 Shall the verbal description come before or after the table?Slide35

What is a research report? (Structure of a Research Paper)7. Resultsobjectively (without interpretation) presented with verbal descriptions of data often displayed in charts, figures, or tables.Example in Mackey & Gass:13.In some cases, tables may help to summarize the data. Brown (1988, p. 54) recommends a prose description followed by a table, butSwales and Feak (2004) suggest a table followed by a data commentary.Whichever organization you choose, you should use it consistently in your paper Slide36

What is a research report? (Structure of a Research Paper)8. Discussion and conclusionThe main idea of the study maybe restated and the findings summarizedThey are often two separate sections mainly interpretive and explanatory in nature. Examples in Mackey & Gass:15.If the Discussion section is short, it can be combined with the Results section or substitute the word “Conclusion” for the discussion. Either way, this is where you tell your readers what it all means. We know from the Results section what happened, now we want to know why it happened. After you interpret your answers for us, think about their implications. Perhaps you could suggest changes in practice, reflect on unanswered questions, or suggest directions for future research.Slide37

What is a research report? (Structure of a Research Paper)9. Referenceseverything cited in the body appears in the reference list, and all sources listed in the reference list are cited in body of your research the paper.No single style used by all journalsMore guidelines will be discussed later.10. Appendicesmay include examples of the actual materials and/ or other necessary information for the interpretation of the study but might interrupt the flow of the paper if included in the body