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Criminological theory  New Directions in Biosocial Theory: Perspectives and Policies Criminological theory  New Directions in Biosocial Theory: Perspectives and Policies

Criminological theory New Directions in Biosocial Theory: Perspectives and Policies - PowerPoint Presentation

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Criminological theory New Directions in Biosocial Theory: Perspectives and Policies - PPT Presentation

Lilly Cullen Ball Criminological Theory Sixth Edition 2015 SAGE Publications Introduction Biosocial criminology is not a theory but a category that covers many perspectives Examines biosocial risk and protective factors and the consequences of being exposed to environmental toxins ID: 661280

biological theory sage criminological theory biological criminological sage publications lilly cullen ball sixth edition 2015 theories consequences behavior factors

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Slide1

Criminological theory

New Directions in Biosocial Theory: Perspectives and Policies

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide2

Introduction

Biosocial criminology is not “a” theory but a category that covers many perspectives

Examines biosocial risk and protective factors and the consequences of being exposed to environmental toxins

Biosocial theory has policy implications

Can justify progressive attempts to prevent crime and to reduce punitiveness

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide3

Biological Risk Factors

The

deficits that increase the likelihood that individuals will enter crime are called “risk

factors”

The more sophisticated biosocial approaches rarely make the simple argument that some individuals are inherently criminal

Antisocial behavior is traced to many biological risk factors that may increase antisocial behavior if combined with any negative environmental conditions

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide4

Risk Factor: Intelligence

Intelligence is a highly complex concept that refers in general to a person’s “adaptability”

The heritability coefficient shows that 60% of IQ is inherited

Intellectual imbalance (vastly different scores on the various dimensions on the IQ test) may be the result of negative environment

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide5

Risk Factor: ADHD

Some biosocial theorists have suggested that attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a significant factor in a range of antisocial activities, including adolescent drug use and adult crime

The “attention deficit” in ADHD involves chronic inattention while the “hyperactivity” aspect is self-explanatory, with both aspects aggravated by “impulsivity” in ADHD

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide6

Risk Factor: ADHD/CD

There is now substantial evidence, including meta-analytic research, showing that ADHD is a significant risk factor in a range of antisocial behaviors

However, some have questioned this relationship, pointing out that ADHD is often comorbid with conduct disorder (CD)

CD is characterized by aggression toward people and animals, destruction of property, deceitfulness or theft, and serious violation of rules

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide7

Risk Factor: ADHD/CD

Comings has pointed out, however, that ADHD is often accompanied by conduct disorder (CD), something known as comorbidity

Comings argues that the presence of comorbid CD rather than ADHD predicts adolescent substance abuse and adult crime

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide8

Risk Factor: ADHD/CD

Comings maintains both ADHD and CD can be traced to pathologies of the frontal lobes, with dorsolateral deficits of the frontal lobes render one susceptible to ADHD and the comorbid appearance of CD likely only with deficits also occurring in the orbitofrontal area of the frontal lobes

Current research shows a

dditional genetic polymorphisms are being linked with ADHD and

CD

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide9

Risk Factors: Alcoholism

There is a problem of logic involved in using a

biologically defined

independent variable to predict a

socially defined dependent variable

Some of the most appealing work in biosocial theory has come from the search to identify certain genotypes with substance abuse such as alcoholism

Alcoholism is associated with genetic predispositions leading more to define it as an illness rather than a crime

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide10

Protective Factors

In the search for protective factors of a biological nature of antisocial behavior, one must research into the opposite end of the spectrum of risk factors (factors that insulate people from antisocial behavior)

Empathy: ability to appreciate other’s point of view (heritability of .68)

Mirror neurons – allow us to feel what others are feeling

Influenced by oxytocin produced in the limbic system (more produced results in greater bonding, openness, social skills, caring, and protectiveness (kin altruism)

Females have less testosterone and more oxytocin than males which may explain gender differences in

crim

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide11

Protective Factors

Protective factors might include “agreeableness,” “conscientiousness,” and “

conscience”

M

oral emotions such as regret, shame, guilt, pride, embarrassment, anger, and admiration may be associated with elaborate connections between the frontal cortex, temporal lobe, and limbic

system

M

oral judgments appear to be more associated with activation of the frontal and temporal

lobes

H

igher

functioning right temporal region may serve as a protective factor in reducing the odds of a person with social risk factors developing antisocial behavior

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide12

Protective Factors

Self-control is a protective factor and may depend on self-awareness

Activation of the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) is associated with self-awareness of one’s traits and attitudes

People who are aware of their own physiological states are able to make more advantageous decisions simply because they know themselves better

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide13

Protective Factors

High ANS activity protects one against involvement in antisocial behavior, while low ANS activity increases antisocial behavior

Kin altruism is also a protective factor in general

Biological kin have a greater affinity for one another that serves to reduce the violence that might otherwise be higher

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide14

Protective Factors

Proper parenting and a supportive home can reduce the probabilities of law violation associated with the various biological risk

factors

T

he resilience of some inner-city youth in the face of enormous pressures toward law violation remind one of the sociological studies of

self-concept

as an insulating

factorStable family life serves as a protective factor that may greatly reduce or even eliminate the

criminogenic effect of

MPAs

(minor physical abnormalities)

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide15

Environmental Toxins

Frontal lobe deficits that biological criminologists have associated with antisocial behavior can often be traced to common environmental neurotoxins, such as mercury and lead

Environmental toxins are also significant factors in outcomes such as hyperactivity, learning disabilities, and IQ deficits

L

ead in particular is associated with all of these deficits and a host of others including impulsivity, aggression, lack of self-control

,

school

failure, and psychopathy

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide16

Environmental Toxins

Tobacco smokeAssociation between prenatal tobacco exposure and emotional instability, physical aggressiveness, social immaturity, and oppositional defiance disorder (ODD), as well as criminal behavior

The offspring of people affected may be damaged for several generations.

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide17

Environmental Toxins

Evidence

indicates that synthetic chemicals act as “hormone mimics” possessing the ability to alter normal biological

processes

Exposure to such chemicals has been linked to elevated estrogen levels in the womb, which has in turn been linked

with aggression in male mice

P

roximity to hazardous waste production, treatment, storage, and disposal facilities increases the likelihood of brain and general CNS impairment, generating specific disorders such as IQ deficits, learning disabilities, increased aggression, low frustration

tolerance diminished

self-control, impulsivity, and ADHD, plus general disorders such as increased violence, antisocial behavior, and

crime

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide18

Environmental Toxins

Minorities are much more likely to live in areas proximate to hazardous waste sites than are Whites

Low-income groups are more likely to live in such areas than are high-income groups, and that both minority groups and low-income communities are likely to be closer to the location of chemical accidents than are White groups or high-income communities

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide19

Environmental Toxins

Biosocial theorists have focused special attention on diet (protein, refined carbs, food allergies, vitamin deficiencies, MSG, caffeine, and chemicals in serotonin

Aggression due to low serotonin levels may be corrected through a high-protein diet

Twinkie defense

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide20

Environmental Toxins

Criminality is likely to be associated to some extent with traumatic brain injuries (TBIs)

Common causes, including falls, motor vehicle accidents, assaults, and suicide attempts, are environmental and preventable

Severity of antisocial behavior in individuals with TBI not only fails to improve but becomes greater over time

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide21

The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications

The success of criminological theories may depend more upon the

context

of the times than upon theoretical rigor or research support

Biological sciences are riding a wave of popularityAs the biological theorizing became more and more prominent in criminology during the 1980s and 1990s, concern once again turned to the possible policy consequences

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide22

The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications

Agenda for Research and Policy

The relevance and significance of biological perspectives for criminology must be fully evaluated

Evaluation must await four prerequisites:

Estimation of the incidence of biological disorders among antisocial populations

Identification of etiologic or causal mechanisms

Assessment of the dynamic interaction among biological and socioenvironmental factors

Determination as to whether improvements in behavior follow large-scale therapeutic manipulations

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide23

The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications

Evidence indicates that both biological and social disadvantages may be more prevalent among offender populations than among the general public, but the extent is unclear

Must identify how genetic or biological factors (in combination with environmental factors) actually influence an individual’s likelihood of criminal behavior

I

dentification

of exact etiologic or

causal mechanisms

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide24

The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications

Must ask ourselves: Does the physiological characteristic actually cause antisocial behavior, or is it merely associated with it?

Necessary to assess the interaction between biology and the environment

Still will be necessary to show that researchers can actually manipulate and control antisocial behavior within the context of biological variables

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide25

The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications

One area of behavior genetics seems to have attracted little interest is modular

theory

P

osits various “preparedness” systems (such as that for language acquisition) that seem to have evolved for specific functions (Swiss Army knife)

The

brain is entirely modular with perhaps hundreds of specialized neural networks or “computational

systems”

Central to the entire argument is the question of the plasticity of the

brain (

synaptogenesis

)

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide26

The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications

Modular theory

E

specially

applicable to the “hypocritical behavior” so common among white- collar criminalsAccording to modular theory, (1) inconsistent attitudes and beliefs, (2) discrepancies between our conscious attitudes and actual behaviors, or (3) our behavioral inconsistencies themselves may be the result of the fact that the brain is processing input through many different modules or closed neural circuits at once, each with its own “take” on the environmental stimuli in

question

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide27

The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications

Neural circuitry

Different neural circuits seem to be implicated in various sorts of executive functions

The entire circuit system underlying executive functions appears to include both direct and indirect circuits

Very different circuits are activated for cognitively complex functions versus cognitively simple functions

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide28

The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications

Neural circuitry

S

tudies

of myelination, the process by which neural axons are gradually enclosed in insulating sheaths of myelin is a part of neural circuitry research

M

yelination

process continues until about age 50

I

nsulating

effect of myelination is so important because it enhances the connectivity of neural

circuits and increases

the amount and quality of information that can be transmitted per unit of

time

E

nhancing

both inhibitory controls and higher cognitive functioning

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide29

The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications

Assess

the interaction between biology and the

environment

Biological factors may be examined as “vulnerabilities” that may amplify the antisocial effects of certain

environmental influences

No

direct connection between genetics and criminality

The

connections are more in the form

of complex

“chains” made up of various “links” that take us from one to the

other

Phenotypal

expressions such as “

impulsivity”

must be regarded as intervening variables that seem to

predispose

one toward criminality

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide30

The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications

Biological markers or so-called “vulnerability markers” seem to be “intermediate phenotypes,” or “subclinical traits,” whose identification might enable biosocial researchers to construct a clearer path by which genotypes

sometimes

give rise to such identifiable but subtle biological

endophenotypes that do bear a more direct relationship to the behavioral phenotypes that may then be linked to increased odds of criminality

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide31

The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications

M

anipulating

only the biological factors is unlikely to produce the desired changes in antisocial

behaviorStill need supportive

counseling, behavior modification strategies, and a change in aspects of the environment that are contributing to the behavioral difficulties

P

rograms showing the most favorable outcomes are the cognitive rehabilitation programs

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide32

The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications

Prevention and Treatment

Biosocial theories may have their greatest policy applications in terms of prevention and treatment programs

It may soon be possible to alter genetic makeup and/or replace particular genes so as to reduce the likelihood of antisocial behavior

Brain

scans are being used more and more in the sentencing stage, where it is possible to introduce “mitigating circumstances”

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide33

The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications

Most immediate promise in dealing with problems of substance

abuse

M

ethadone and nicotine patches

M

ay make more sense to intervene at the environmental level to reduce child abuse, environmental toxins, and other “triggers” for the expression of genetic predispositions

Behavior

be modified by a variety of drugs to regulate neurotransmitter, enzymes,

and hormones

as well as nutritional programs

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide34

The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications

Parts of the criminal justice system are more equipped with some of the polices advocated by biosocial theorists:

The right to treatment in the juvenile system

Drug courts

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide35

The Consequences of Biological Theories: Juvenile Legal Responsibility

“Diminished

capacity” of adolescents in terms of performance demanded by the adults who supervise

them is probably the product

of the interaction between developmental changes in two distinct neurobiological systems

S

ocioemotional

system localized in the limbic and paralimbic areas

Cognitive

control

system composed primarily of the lateral prefrontal and parietal cortices and those parts of the anterior cingulated cortex with which they are

connected

The

socioemotional

system tends to overwhelm the

latter cognitive

system, which may not “catch up” until youths reach their early

20s

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide36

The Consequences of Biological Theories: Juvenile Legal Responsibility

A

dolescence

is characterized by a significant increase in dopamine

productionFrontal

lobes mature during adolescence, and some biosocial theorists hypothesized that they remained underdeveloped until

adulthood

Process

of synaptic pruning by which the frontal lobes achieve the efficiency necessary to logical functioning is usually complete by

age16

The cognitive

control

system, however, matures

much later, meaning that the developed capacities of the frontal lobes that perform so well in settled settings still tend to be overwhelmed by the more “primitive”

socioemotional

system in “real life”

situations

Leads to

legal

confusion to

where

the

boundary between adolescence and

adulthood should be drawn

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide37

The Consequences of Biological Theories: Juvenile Legal Responsibility

The cognitive control

system is a matter of psychosocial maturation rather than purely cognitive development, and it proceeds more slowly, being especially affected by factors such as susceptibility to peer influence, future orientation, reward sensitivity, and the capacity for self-regulation

Adolescents and adults do not differ as much in risk perception

Although, adolescents

are

more

attracted to

rewards and make

very different cost-benefit calculations,

with the

neurological/biochemical attraction of the perceived rewards tending to outweigh the more logical perception of risk

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide38

The Consequences of Biological Theories: Juvenile Legal Responsibility

B

iosocial

research shows that adolescents remain immature in their psychosocial and emotional development even at age

18Makes them less morally blameworthy and less legally

culpable

Due to (1)

the imbalance between their socioemotional

and cognitive control systems but also

of

(

2)

their limited ability to resist peer

pressure

A

lso bears

upon adolescents’ competency to stand

trial

Sanctioning

adolescents as adults is

counterproductive

Most

adolescents “age out” of delinquency when the transient dual-system imbalance is corrected in early adulthood, while the legal

labeling

processes that

create psychosocial

disturbance and stunt psychosocial development are likely to exacerbate the very tendencies that contributed to adolescents’

offenses

in the first place

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide39

The Consequences of Biological Theories: Cognitive Behavior Therapy

The most effective rehabilitation approaches seem to entail cognitive-behavioral and social learning treatment approaches

Key to all this is the plasticity of the brain, which makes it possible for environmental stimuli, including systematically applied cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), to alter cognitive and emotional brain functioning and to actually restructure (i.e., “rewire”) the brain to some extent

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide40

The Consequences of Biological Theories: Cognitive Behavior Therapy

Self-control

as a protective factor may depend to some extent upon

self-awareness,

Consists of two related but distinct features

O

ne

more “cognitive” and characterized as the “who am I” component The

other more “emotional” and described as the “what do my internal processes look like” component

P

eople

who are aware of their own physiological states are able to make better decisions simply because they know themselves better

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide41

The Consequences of Biological Theories: Cognitive Behavior Therapy

Cognitive behavioral treatment tends to

emphasize

three key components of

therapyDevelop the capacity to identifying high-risk situations/thoughts/feelings that precede

offending

Must replacing criminogenic

thoughts with non-criminogenic

thoughts

develop increased self-control by increasing their ability to recognize short- and long- term consequences of behaviors, improve

decision-making

, and strengthen problem-solving skills.

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide42

The Consequences of Biological Theories: Problems of Definition and the Social Construction of Crime

The search for the biological roots of “criminal behavior” often has gone on without any apparent recognition of the fact that what is criminal behavior is different from one society to another

Tendency of biosocial theories to focus attention entirely upon the offender

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide43

The Consequences of Biological Theories: Problems of Definition and the Social Construction of Crime

Biosocial theorists are not in agreement with the terms “crime” and “antisocial behavior”

The best solution here is to focus upon certain relatively specific categories

May be necessary to

redefine

crime from a social/legal category to a biological category so as to produce a proper fit between causal concepts and effect concepts

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide44

The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications

Biosocial theorists whose works is more specific are more successful in avoiding the temptation to overgeneralize

Evolutionary psychology, genetics, and neuroscience make fundamentally different claims about “human nature” than does the criminal law

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide45

The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications

Biological factors are entering the criminal justice system:

DNA

Lie detectors

Researchers have obtained approximately the same range of predictive power (i.e., correlation coefficients of .20–.40) with their biological variables as social scientists have with the various social variables long in use

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide46

The Consequences of Biological Theories: Challenges Ahead

May give people the power for dangerous justifications to suppress the particular behaviors that most annoy them and perhaps even to eliminate those now seen as “unfit” to survive

Problems

involved in predicting criminal disposition from genetic evidence, citing the fact that many “false

positives” may be made

Successful identification of genetic markers for criminality might well lead parents trying for the “perfect child” to abort fetuses carrying such markers

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide47

The Consequences of Biological Theories: Challenges Ahead

Biological and biosocial approaches have the potential to pull us away from the criminal justice model toward the medical model

Social policy would be pushed in the direction of a system based on diagnosis and treatment rather than one of adjudication and punishment

If offenders are seen as dangerous due to their very nature, it may reinforce current policies aimed at incapacitating career criminals and chronic offenders

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide48

Conclusion

Complex biosocial perspectives are now being proposed that avoid the more blatant biases found in the work of Lombroso, Hooton, and others of this genre

Contemporary biological theories are not inherently conservative or repressive and, in some cases, can be used to call for progressive intervention

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide49

Conclusion

Two challenges will remain as biological theorizing comes to have a more prominent place

There is a risk that finding biological correlates of wayward conduct will encourage a “reductionist” view of this behavior

Biological theory—even if done implicitly and with no intention—can be used to socially construct offenders as members of a different class of humans: super-predators whose brains, genes, or constitution are defective

On

the other hand, it must be acknowledged that biosocial research can also contribute to scenarios in which deviants are treated more leniently by the law and treated more effectively by scientifically validated therapeutic models

Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications