Lilly Cullen Ball Criminological Theory Sixth Edition 2015 SAGE Publications Introduction Biosocial criminology is not a theory but a category that covers many perspectives Examines biosocial risk and protective factors and the consequences of being exposed to environmental toxins ID: 661280
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Slide1
Criminological theory
New Directions in Biosocial Theory: Perspectives and Policies
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide2
Introduction
Biosocial criminology is not “a” theory but a category that covers many perspectives
Examines biosocial risk and protective factors and the consequences of being exposed to environmental toxins
Biosocial theory has policy implications
Can justify progressive attempts to prevent crime and to reduce punitiveness
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide3
Biological Risk Factors
The
deficits that increase the likelihood that individuals will enter crime are called “risk
factors”
The more sophisticated biosocial approaches rarely make the simple argument that some individuals are inherently criminal
Antisocial behavior is traced to many biological risk factors that may increase antisocial behavior if combined with any negative environmental conditions
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide4
Risk Factor: Intelligence
Intelligence is a highly complex concept that refers in general to a person’s “adaptability”
The heritability coefficient shows that 60% of IQ is inherited
Intellectual imbalance (vastly different scores on the various dimensions on the IQ test) may be the result of negative environment
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide5
Risk Factor: ADHD
Some biosocial theorists have suggested that attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a significant factor in a range of antisocial activities, including adolescent drug use and adult crime
The “attention deficit” in ADHD involves chronic inattention while the “hyperactivity” aspect is self-explanatory, with both aspects aggravated by “impulsivity” in ADHD
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide6
Risk Factor: ADHD/CD
There is now substantial evidence, including meta-analytic research, showing that ADHD is a significant risk factor in a range of antisocial behaviors
However, some have questioned this relationship, pointing out that ADHD is often comorbid with conduct disorder (CD)
CD is characterized by aggression toward people and animals, destruction of property, deceitfulness or theft, and serious violation of rules
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide7
Risk Factor: ADHD/CD
Comings has pointed out, however, that ADHD is often accompanied by conduct disorder (CD), something known as comorbidity
Comings argues that the presence of comorbid CD rather than ADHD predicts adolescent substance abuse and adult crime
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide8
Risk Factor: ADHD/CD
Comings maintains both ADHD and CD can be traced to pathologies of the frontal lobes, with dorsolateral deficits of the frontal lobes render one susceptible to ADHD and the comorbid appearance of CD likely only with deficits also occurring in the orbitofrontal area of the frontal lobes
Current research shows a
dditional genetic polymorphisms are being linked with ADHD and
CD
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide9
Risk Factors: Alcoholism
There is a problem of logic involved in using a
biologically defined
independent variable to predict a
socially defined dependent variable
Some of the most appealing work in biosocial theory has come from the search to identify certain genotypes with substance abuse such as alcoholism
Alcoholism is associated with genetic predispositions leading more to define it as an illness rather than a crime
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide10
Protective Factors
In the search for protective factors of a biological nature of antisocial behavior, one must research into the opposite end of the spectrum of risk factors (factors that insulate people from antisocial behavior)
Empathy: ability to appreciate other’s point of view (heritability of .68)
Mirror neurons – allow us to feel what others are feeling
Influenced by oxytocin produced in the limbic system (more produced results in greater bonding, openness, social skills, caring, and protectiveness (kin altruism)
Females have less testosterone and more oxytocin than males which may explain gender differences in
crim
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide11
Protective Factors
Protective factors might include “agreeableness,” “conscientiousness,” and “
conscience”
M
oral emotions such as regret, shame, guilt, pride, embarrassment, anger, and admiration may be associated with elaborate connections between the frontal cortex, temporal lobe, and limbic
system
M
oral judgments appear to be more associated with activation of the frontal and temporal
lobes
H
igher
functioning right temporal region may serve as a protective factor in reducing the odds of a person with social risk factors developing antisocial behavior
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide12
Protective Factors
Self-control is a protective factor and may depend on self-awareness
Activation of the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) is associated with self-awareness of one’s traits and attitudes
People who are aware of their own physiological states are able to make more advantageous decisions simply because they know themselves better
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide13
Protective Factors
High ANS activity protects one against involvement in antisocial behavior, while low ANS activity increases antisocial behavior
Kin altruism is also a protective factor in general
Biological kin have a greater affinity for one another that serves to reduce the violence that might otherwise be higher
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide14
Protective Factors
Proper parenting and a supportive home can reduce the probabilities of law violation associated with the various biological risk
factors
T
he resilience of some inner-city youth in the face of enormous pressures toward law violation remind one of the sociological studies of
self-concept
as an insulating
factorStable family life serves as a protective factor that may greatly reduce or even eliminate the
criminogenic effect of
MPAs
(minor physical abnormalities)
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide15
Environmental Toxins
Frontal lobe deficits that biological criminologists have associated with antisocial behavior can often be traced to common environmental neurotoxins, such as mercury and lead
Environmental toxins are also significant factors in outcomes such as hyperactivity, learning disabilities, and IQ deficits
L
ead in particular is associated with all of these deficits and a host of others including impulsivity, aggression, lack of self-control
,
school
failure, and psychopathy
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide16
Environmental Toxins
Tobacco smokeAssociation between prenatal tobacco exposure and emotional instability, physical aggressiveness, social immaturity, and oppositional defiance disorder (ODD), as well as criminal behavior
The offspring of people affected may be damaged for several generations.
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide17
Environmental Toxins
Evidence
indicates that synthetic chemicals act as “hormone mimics” possessing the ability to alter normal biological
processes
Exposure to such chemicals has been linked to elevated estrogen levels in the womb, which has in turn been linked
with aggression in male mice
P
roximity to hazardous waste production, treatment, storage, and disposal facilities increases the likelihood of brain and general CNS impairment, generating specific disorders such as IQ deficits, learning disabilities, increased aggression, low frustration
tolerance diminished
self-control, impulsivity, and ADHD, plus general disorders such as increased violence, antisocial behavior, and
crime
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide18
Environmental Toxins
Minorities are much more likely to live in areas proximate to hazardous waste sites than are Whites
Low-income groups are more likely to live in such areas than are high-income groups, and that both minority groups and low-income communities are likely to be closer to the location of chemical accidents than are White groups or high-income communities
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide19
Environmental Toxins
Biosocial theorists have focused special attention on diet (protein, refined carbs, food allergies, vitamin deficiencies, MSG, caffeine, and chemicals in serotonin
Aggression due to low serotonin levels may be corrected through a high-protein diet
Twinkie defense
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide20
Environmental Toxins
Criminality is likely to be associated to some extent with traumatic brain injuries (TBIs)
Common causes, including falls, motor vehicle accidents, assaults, and suicide attempts, are environmental and preventable
Severity of antisocial behavior in individuals with TBI not only fails to improve but becomes greater over time
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide21
The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications
The success of criminological theories may depend more upon the
context
of the times than upon theoretical rigor or research support
Biological sciences are riding a wave of popularityAs the biological theorizing became more and more prominent in criminology during the 1980s and 1990s, concern once again turned to the possible policy consequences
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide22
The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications
Agenda for Research and Policy
The relevance and significance of biological perspectives for criminology must be fully evaluated
Evaluation must await four prerequisites:
Estimation of the incidence of biological disorders among antisocial populations
Identification of etiologic or causal mechanisms
Assessment of the dynamic interaction among biological and socioenvironmental factors
Determination as to whether improvements in behavior follow large-scale therapeutic manipulations
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide23
The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications
Evidence indicates that both biological and social disadvantages may be more prevalent among offender populations than among the general public, but the extent is unclear
Must identify how genetic or biological factors (in combination with environmental factors) actually influence an individual’s likelihood of criminal behavior
I
dentification
of exact etiologic or
causal mechanisms
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide24
The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications
Must ask ourselves: Does the physiological characteristic actually cause antisocial behavior, or is it merely associated with it?
Necessary to assess the interaction between biology and the environment
Still will be necessary to show that researchers can actually manipulate and control antisocial behavior within the context of biological variables
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide25
The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications
One area of behavior genetics seems to have attracted little interest is modular
theory
P
osits various “preparedness” systems (such as that for language acquisition) that seem to have evolved for specific functions (Swiss Army knife)
The
brain is entirely modular with perhaps hundreds of specialized neural networks or “computational
systems”
Central to the entire argument is the question of the plasticity of the
brain (
synaptogenesis
)
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide26
The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications
Modular theory
E
specially
applicable to the “hypocritical behavior” so common among white- collar criminalsAccording to modular theory, (1) inconsistent attitudes and beliefs, (2) discrepancies between our conscious attitudes and actual behaviors, or (3) our behavioral inconsistencies themselves may be the result of the fact that the brain is processing input through many different modules or closed neural circuits at once, each with its own “take” on the environmental stimuli in
question
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide27
The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications
Neural circuitry
Different neural circuits seem to be implicated in various sorts of executive functions
The entire circuit system underlying executive functions appears to include both direct and indirect circuits
Very different circuits are activated for cognitively complex functions versus cognitively simple functions
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide28
The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications
Neural circuitry
S
tudies
of myelination, the process by which neural axons are gradually enclosed in insulating sheaths of myelin is a part of neural circuitry research
M
yelination
process continues until about age 50
I
nsulating
effect of myelination is so important because it enhances the connectivity of neural
circuits and increases
the amount and quality of information that can be transmitted per unit of
time
E
nhancing
both inhibitory controls and higher cognitive functioning
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide29
The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications
Assess
the interaction between biology and the
environment
Biological factors may be examined as “vulnerabilities” that may amplify the antisocial effects of certain
environmental influences
No
direct connection between genetics and criminality
The
connections are more in the form
of complex
“chains” made up of various “links” that take us from one to the
other
Phenotypal
expressions such as “
impulsivity”
must be regarded as intervening variables that seem to
predispose
one toward criminality
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide30
The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications
Biological markers or so-called “vulnerability markers” seem to be “intermediate phenotypes,” or “subclinical traits,” whose identification might enable biosocial researchers to construct a clearer path by which genotypes
sometimes
give rise to such identifiable but subtle biological
endophenotypes that do bear a more direct relationship to the behavioral phenotypes that may then be linked to increased odds of criminality
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide31
The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications
M
anipulating
only the biological factors is unlikely to produce the desired changes in antisocial
behaviorStill need supportive
counseling, behavior modification strategies, and a change in aspects of the environment that are contributing to the behavioral difficulties
P
rograms showing the most favorable outcomes are the cognitive rehabilitation programs
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide32
The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications
Prevention and Treatment
Biosocial theories may have their greatest policy applications in terms of prevention and treatment programs
It may soon be possible to alter genetic makeup and/or replace particular genes so as to reduce the likelihood of antisocial behavior
Brain
scans are being used more and more in the sentencing stage, where it is possible to introduce “mitigating circumstances”
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide33
The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications
Most immediate promise in dealing with problems of substance
abuse
M
ethadone and nicotine patches
M
ay make more sense to intervene at the environmental level to reduce child abuse, environmental toxins, and other “triggers” for the expression of genetic predispositions
Behavior
be modified by a variety of drugs to regulate neurotransmitter, enzymes,
and hormones
as well as nutritional programs
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide34
The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications
Parts of the criminal justice system are more equipped with some of the polices advocated by biosocial theorists:
The right to treatment in the juvenile system
Drug courts
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide35
The Consequences of Biological Theories: Juvenile Legal Responsibility
“Diminished
capacity” of adolescents in terms of performance demanded by the adults who supervise
them is probably the product
of the interaction between developmental changes in two distinct neurobiological systems
S
ocioemotional
system localized in the limbic and paralimbic areas
Cognitive
control
system composed primarily of the lateral prefrontal and parietal cortices and those parts of the anterior cingulated cortex with which they are
connected
The
socioemotional
system tends to overwhelm the
latter cognitive
system, which may not “catch up” until youths reach their early
20s
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide36
The Consequences of Biological Theories: Juvenile Legal Responsibility
A
dolescence
is characterized by a significant increase in dopamine
productionFrontal
lobes mature during adolescence, and some biosocial theorists hypothesized that they remained underdeveloped until
adulthood
Process
of synaptic pruning by which the frontal lobes achieve the efficiency necessary to logical functioning is usually complete by
age16
The cognitive
control
system, however, matures
much later, meaning that the developed capacities of the frontal lobes that perform so well in settled settings still tend to be overwhelmed by the more “primitive”
socioemotional
system in “real life”
situations
Leads to
legal
confusion to
where
the
boundary between adolescence and
adulthood should be drawn
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide37
The Consequences of Biological Theories: Juvenile Legal Responsibility
The cognitive control
system is a matter of psychosocial maturation rather than purely cognitive development, and it proceeds more slowly, being especially affected by factors such as susceptibility to peer influence, future orientation, reward sensitivity, and the capacity for self-regulation
Adolescents and adults do not differ as much in risk perception
Although, adolescents
are
more
attracted to
rewards and make
very different cost-benefit calculations,
with the
neurological/biochemical attraction of the perceived rewards tending to outweigh the more logical perception of risk
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide38
The Consequences of Biological Theories: Juvenile Legal Responsibility
B
iosocial
research shows that adolescents remain immature in their psychosocial and emotional development even at age
18Makes them less morally blameworthy and less legally
culpable
Due to (1)
the imbalance between their socioemotional
and cognitive control systems but also
of
(
2)
their limited ability to resist peer
pressure
A
lso bears
upon adolescents’ competency to stand
trial
Sanctioning
adolescents as adults is
counterproductive
Most
adolescents “age out” of delinquency when the transient dual-system imbalance is corrected in early adulthood, while the legal
labeling
processes that
create psychosocial
disturbance and stunt psychosocial development are likely to exacerbate the very tendencies that contributed to adolescents’
offenses
in the first place
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide39
The Consequences of Biological Theories: Cognitive Behavior Therapy
The most effective rehabilitation approaches seem to entail cognitive-behavioral and social learning treatment approaches
Key to all this is the plasticity of the brain, which makes it possible for environmental stimuli, including systematically applied cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), to alter cognitive and emotional brain functioning and to actually restructure (i.e., “rewire”) the brain to some extent
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide40
The Consequences of Biological Theories: Cognitive Behavior Therapy
Self-control
as a protective factor may depend to some extent upon
self-awareness,
Consists of two related but distinct features
O
ne
more “cognitive” and characterized as the “who am I” component The
other more “emotional” and described as the “what do my internal processes look like” component
P
eople
who are aware of their own physiological states are able to make better decisions simply because they know themselves better
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide41
The Consequences of Biological Theories: Cognitive Behavior Therapy
Cognitive behavioral treatment tends to
emphasize
three key components of
therapyDevelop the capacity to identifying high-risk situations/thoughts/feelings that precede
offending
Must replacing criminogenic
thoughts with non-criminogenic
thoughts
develop increased self-control by increasing their ability to recognize short- and long- term consequences of behaviors, improve
decision-making
, and strengthen problem-solving skills.
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide42
The Consequences of Biological Theories: Problems of Definition and the Social Construction of Crime
The search for the biological roots of “criminal behavior” often has gone on without any apparent recognition of the fact that what is criminal behavior is different from one society to another
Tendency of biosocial theories to focus attention entirely upon the offender
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide43
The Consequences of Biological Theories: Problems of Definition and the Social Construction of Crime
Biosocial theorists are not in agreement with the terms “crime” and “antisocial behavior”
The best solution here is to focus upon certain relatively specific categories
May be necessary to
redefine
crime from a social/legal category to a biological category so as to produce a proper fit between causal concepts and effect concepts
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide44
The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications
Biosocial theorists whose works is more specific are more successful in avoiding the temptation to overgeneralize
Evolutionary psychology, genetics, and neuroscience make fundamentally different claims about “human nature” than does the criminal law
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide45
The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications
Biological factors are entering the criminal justice system:
DNA
Lie detectors
Researchers have obtained approximately the same range of predictive power (i.e., correlation coefficients of .20–.40) with their biological variables as social scientists have with the various social variables long in use
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide46
The Consequences of Biological Theories: Challenges Ahead
May give people the power for dangerous justifications to suppress the particular behaviors that most annoy them and perhaps even to eliminate those now seen as “unfit” to survive
Problems
involved in predicting criminal disposition from genetic evidence, citing the fact that many “false
positives” may be made
Successful identification of genetic markers for criminality might well lead parents trying for the “perfect child” to abort fetuses carrying such markers
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide47
The Consequences of Biological Theories: Challenges Ahead
Biological and biosocial approaches have the potential to pull us away from the criminal justice model toward the medical model
Social policy would be pushed in the direction of a system based on diagnosis and treatment rather than one of adjudication and punishment
If offenders are seen as dangerous due to their very nature, it may reinforce current policies aimed at incapacitating career criminals and chronic offenders
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide48
Conclusion
Complex biosocial perspectives are now being proposed that avoid the more blatant biases found in the work of Lombroso, Hooton, and others of this genre
Contemporary biological theories are not inherently conservative or repressive and, in some cases, can be used to call for progressive intervention
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE PublicationsSlide49
Conclusion
Two challenges will remain as biological theorizing comes to have a more prominent place
There is a risk that finding biological correlates of wayward conduct will encourage a “reductionist” view of this behavior
Biological theory—even if done implicitly and with no intention—can be used to socially construct offenders as members of a different class of humans: super-predators whose brains, genes, or constitution are defective
On
the other hand, it must be acknowledged that biosocial research can also contribute to scenarios in which deviants are treated more leniently by the law and treated more effectively by scientifically validated therapeutic models
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications