Internationalisation and Interculturality in Higher Education Terri Kim Brunel University London UK European Migration Network V National Seminar Immigration of International Students ID: 425533
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Slide1
Transnational Academic Mobility, Internationalisation, and Interculturality in Higher Education
Terri Kim
Brunel University London, U.K.
European Migration Network V National Seminar:
Immigration of International Students
19 October 2012
Eurooppasali
,
Malminkatu
16, HelsinkiSlide2
OutlineTrans-national mobility of international students and academics – a growing phenomenon worldwideInternationalisation as marketisationMulti-cultural insularity in UK HE
Academic mobility for new knowledge creation
Some suggestion for global learning and interculturality in HESlide3
Immigration in Europe in the Age of Migration
Total Population in Europe: 730 million
9.5% from overseas
Spain: 40 million (14.1%)
Germany: 80 million (13.1%)
France: 64 million (10.7%)
U.K.: 60 million (10.4%)
Italy: 60 million (7.4%)
Source: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, 2010Slide4
Internationalisation of Higher Education Worldwide through Academic MobilityTotal number foreign students worldwide: + 3.5 millionInbound
1.5 million of all foreign students study in
Europe
(
50% global “market share
”)
58% of these come from outside Europe, 38% from inside (4% unknown)
Foreign student share (of total enrolment) is about
7% in Europe
.
(Source: Bernd
Wächter
, ACA, 2010; UKCISA, 2011)Slide5
There
are two major
processes occurring
:
very
rapid changes in political space, particularly the creation of regional spaces
,
within which transnational academic mobility occurs;
and
– almost everywhere –
policies are being written and implemented
by international and supranational agencies
.
Previous
sporadic, exceptional and limited inter-national academic links have become
systematic, dense, and multiple trans-national
, which is especially visible in Europe. Slide6
On a global scale,
We are experiencing a mass movement of academics (especially researchers) across borders at the same time as a new mode of knowledge production (Gibbon, 2003; Kim, forthcoming, 2013) and the corporatisation of universities (Kim, 2008).
HE has become indicator of economic super-power; and universities are regarded as ‘ideal talent-catching machines’
International students become migrant workers
.Slide7
Proportion of migrants with degrees on the rise in the OECD areaMore than half of recent migrants in Canada, Australia, Ireland and the UK are higher education graduates. (Harnessing the Skills of Migrants and Diasporas to Foster Development, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, France, 2012, University World News, 7 Oct. 2012).
In absolute numbers, some
1.7 million highly educated migrants
within the OECD area are from India, 1.3 million from the UK, 1.3 million from the Philippines, 1.2 million from China and one million from Germany. These five largest highly educated migrant populations account for around 26% of all tertiary educated migrants in the OECD area.
(OECD, Connecting with Emigrants: A global profile of diasporas, 2012)
Pattern of migration
brain drain, and increasingly brain circulation Slide8
“… mobility shall be the hallmark of the European Higher Education Area. We call upon each country to increase mobility, to ensure its high quality and to diversify its types and scope. In 2020, at least 20% of those graduating in the European Higher Education Area should have had a study or training period abroad.”
Communiqué of the Conference of European Ministers
Responsible for Higher Education in Leuven, 28-29 April
2009
,
‘The Bologna Process 2020’ (p. 4)Slide9
… mobility-related disadvantages should be eliminated for all workers.
This is particularly important for the research world
as it allows more mobility, more cooperation and more competition throughout Europe. As such, it could lay the very foundations of a
truly dynamic European Research Area
.
The
League of European Research Universities
, 1 March 2010
Slide10
EC’s recent proposal: ERASMUS for AllAllocate €19 billion (2014- 2020) – 70% increase compared to the current seven-year budget.
Main aim: (i) Modernisation of education and training systems; (ii) providing citizens with skills and competences, and ultimately improving their ‘employability’; (iii)
increasing student and staff mobility to and from
countries outside the EU
as well.
Global learning opportunities for individuals -
5 million mobility opportunities, including 2.2 million HE students.
Specific Knowledge Alliances
between HEIs
and businesses, promoting innovation and
fostering creativity and entrepreneurship
.Slide11
Record numbers of international students – an annual increase of 12% (2010-11); rising by more than 75% since 2000
Source: UNESCO; BBC 10 March 2011 Slide12
International students in UK HEtotalled 428,225 in 2011 compared with 405,810 in 2010 (Total 17% of student population; an increase of 6%)made up 14%
of full-time first degree students
made up
70%
of full-time taught postgraduates
made up
48%
of full-time research degree students
Top non-EU sending countries: China, India, Nigeria, USA, Malaysia, Hong Kong, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Thailand, Canada
Source: UKCISA
(
http://www.ukcisa.org.uk/about/statistics_he.php
)Slide13
Top EU-sending countries: Republic of Ireland, Germany, France, Greece, Cyprus, Poland, Italy, Spain, Romania, BulgariaPopular subject areas by the number of international students: Business and Administration studies; Engineering and Technology; Social studies; Computer science; subjects allied to Medicine; Languages; Creative arts and design; Law; Biological sciences; Physical sciences; Education; Architecture, building & planning; Medicine & Dentistry; Mass communication & documentation; Historical & philosophical studies; Mathematical sciences; Combined; Agriculture & related subjects; Veterinary subjects. Top 20 largest recruiters of international students (2010-11): University of Manchester (26%); UCL (38%); Nottingham; University of Warwick; Edinburgh; Sheffield; University of the Arts, London; Oxford (27%); Birmingham; Coventry;
LSE (66%);
Greenwich; Bedfordshire; King’s College, London
; Cambridge (30%);
Middlesex;
London Met (26%); Imperial College (40%);
The City University; University of Westminster
Students studying wholly overseas for a UK HE qualification: 408, 685
Source: UKCISA (
http://www.ukcisa.org.uk/about/statistics_he.php
International students in UK HESlide14
Enrolments of international (non-EU)
domiciled students, 2008/09
E
nrolments of international (non-EU)
domiciled students, 2008/09
Source: NIACE; Professor Sir David Watson, Oxford, 12 March 2011Slide15
Source: HESA; THE, 26 Jan. 2012Slide16
UKAccording to the national government’s reports:
“higher education institutions operate in an international labour market, they will take appropriate measures to ease
the mobility of academic staff,
and the large numbers of international staff reflect the UK's openness towards mobility.”
(National
Reports 2004-2005 of England, Northern Ireland and Wales prepared for the Bologna Process, p. 9)
Slide17
Internationalisation of the Academic Profession in British Universities27% of full-time academic staff appointed in 2007/08 came from outside the UK (Kim and Locke, 2009).41% of UK university full professors have foreign citizenship (Teichler, 2010).Within the UK, the highest numbers of new appointments from the EU are:
Germany
4200,
Ireland
2895
, Italy
2695, France 2340,
Greece
1905, and
Spain
1570.
From outside the EU
, the highest numbers of appointees are
US
2950 (2380 academic staff + 570 researchers),
China
3730 (2280 academic staff + 1450 researchers), and
India 1900 (1330 + 570).On the basis of current trends, it has been estimated by the Universities UK that the overall proportion of international academics employed in British universities will rise to 50% in 20 years (Source: Universities UK, Policy Brief Talent Wars, 2007, p. 10). The rise of a new transnational academic tribe &
the de-nationalisation of the British academic profession? (Kim, 2009)Slide18
UK Government new immigration policyIt is aimed at reducing net annual immigration from 240,000 to 100,000 by 2015. The government rejected calls from 70 of Britain's universities to stop counting foreign students as immigrants this year (BBC News, 30 May 2012).It restricts who can stay in the UK upon completion of their studies - new rules required foreign students to earn at least £20,000 per year to be employed by Home Office approved companies.Under new visa regulations, students face tougher questions about their destination, limits on their ability to work and harder questions on their English-language capability.Slide19
Expansion, Control and Finance of UK Higher EducationMassification of HE started relatively late but has been rapid in the UK for the last twenty years.-> A former UK government set a target to increase participation in Higher Education towards 50% of those domiciled in England and aged 18 to 30 by 2010. As a consequence of Widening Participation in HE policy, there is visible disparity in the home student cohort – in terms of age, social class and ethnicity with 17% BME nationally. Slide20
The major policy driver: Human Resource Development for the UK Economic competitiveness - UK Economic position, Economic performance in the global knowledge economy
“
Widening access and improving participation in HE are a
crucial part
of our
mission.
Participation
in HE will equip our citizens
to operate
productively within the global knowledge economy.
It also offers
social benefits, including better health, lower crime and
a more
tolerant and inclusive society.”
HEFCE
Strategic Plan 2003-2008Slide21
Percentage of UK-domiciled first yearstudents from minority ethnic groups, 2008/09
Source: NIACE; Professor Sir David Watson, Oxford, 12 March 2011Slide22
Percentage of young full-time first degree entrants fromnational statistics socio-economic classification classes4, 5, 6 and 7, 2008/09
Source: NIACE; Professor Sir David Watson, Oxford, 12 March 2011Slide23
A Widening gap in Widening participation in UK HE?As Crozier
and
Reay
pointed out, what seems to have emerged in the process of widening participation in higher education in Britain is a polarised mass system of HE
(
Reay
, Ball, and David 2005).
“Widening participation will be the first victim of funding cuts”
(
The Guardian
, 2 March 2010)
+
the new triple tuition fee regimeSlide24
Internationalisation as marketisation and Widening Participation in HE as “social engineering” for neoliberal knowledge economy
Multi-cultural insularity(?) in British HE
- The coexistence of two cultures on campus
entailed by multi-
monoculturalismSlide25
Complex relations of transnational academic mobility,
internationalisation
, and
interculturality
in Higher Education
Underpinning
meanings and forces that shape the
Triadic
Relations + WP
(2)
(1) (3)Slide26
“Universities have become once again universitas informed by the universals of a (new) lingua franca and by the mobility of academics and ideas which are clustering into a few centres of excellence within competition on a global scale” (Kim, 2009: 402).
As argued by Ainley (1993),’skills’ formerly understood by many as complex social processes have become de-contextualised and de-constructed into finite, isolable ‘competences’ to be located as the property of the individual, who then carry them, luggage-like, from job to job and also across spatial boundaries (Ainley 1993: 357).
The same logic is applied to transnational mobile students and migrant workers and the types of knowledge they carry. Slide27
The concept of boundaries is partly drawn from work on collective identities - as explored by Barth (1969) and Jenkins (1996). “Boundaries are permeable, persisting despite the flow of personnel across them, and identity is constructed in transactions which occur at and across the boundary.” (Jenkins, 1996, p. 24) Slide28
Transnational Academic MobilityMaking Boundaries (i) --- >> Transnational Academic Mobility --- >> Hard Soft____________________________
Explicit
Implicit
Slide29
Transnational Academic Mobility Making Boundaries (ii)Visible Invisible_____________________________Legal-rational Cultural- ReflexiveState Personal
Authority Adaptation
Slide30
Academic Mobility as an ontological condition and Knowledge as ‘capital’Urry (2000; 2002) rightly asserts that mobility is an ontological condition and is expressed in processes of people, commodities, cultures and technologies all on the move.
An important way to see these processes and relations of mobility and knowledge creation is through different types of knowledge as ‘capital’. Slide31
A Typology of knowledge creation: evolving from Mode 1 and Mode 2 to Mode 3
Mode 1
Mode 2
----->
Mode 3
Based on Incorporating Using
Knowledge Capital
Social Capital
Identity
Capital
(hierarchical) (interactive, multiple nodes) (entwined, circular
movement) Slide32
Identity capital as a concept is not context-specific or class-specific. Identity capital includes cultural capital as well as many other elements that are specific to membership in any type of social culture. Identity capital operates to gain a group membership validation or preserve a self-definition (Cote & Levine, 2008)Moreover, I argued that transnational identity capital
involves
generic competences to engage with
otherness
(Kim, 2010).Slide33
Mode 3 as embodied, travelled KnowledgeI would argue that particular types of tacit knowledge formed and carried by transnational mobile academics and students are new form of ‘embodied travelled knowledge’ which can potentially develop into encultured
knowledge’ – as defined by Collins (1993) - and subsequently form ‘transnational identity capital’ (Kim, forthcoming).
Embodied
knowledge consists of contextual practices, and is more of a social acquisition, as how individuals interact in and interpret their environment creates this non-explicit type of knowledge.
Encultured
knowledge is the process of achieving shared understandings through socialisation and acculturation (Collins, 1993).Slide34
The existing theories and collected evidence have not engaged sufficiently with ‘The University’ as an aggregation of mobile individuals.This specific context promotes new types of
knowledge
transfer
and
transformation
(Kim, 2010 - novel processes that are occurring along with academic mobility.
These differ from codified knowledge explicitly required in the contemporary entrepreneurial university.
They occur in the interface between the mobile individual and ‘The University’ – better understanding of maybe key to success of the ‘internationalisation’ agenda.
They need to be investigated via different instruments.Slide35
Using biographical accounts of mobile academic intellectuals, my research has focused on how academic mobility led to a new mode of knowledge creation in the process of becoming strangers and being positioned as academic migrants. Slide36
In the contemporary neoliberal market period (1990-2011) Talents + M1, M2, M3Global Talent Recruitment, Rise and Expansion of Transnational Research Policy and Research Industry Further diversification of Mode 2 knowledge production and Rise of Mode 3 knowledge, significant but in danger of commodification
Transnational Academic Mobility and new Knowledge Creation for
Interculturality
in HESlide37
Martha Nussbaum on Cosmopolitan Citizenship‘Each of us dwells… in two communities - the local community of our birth and in the community of human argument and aspiration… in which we look neither to this corner nor to that, but measure the boundaries of our nation by the sun’. Nussbaum (1994) Patriotism and Cosmopolitanism, Boston Review 19 (Oct/Nov).Slide38
Rethinking Interculturality in Higher EducationFunctionary, instrumentalIntercultural competence skills formation-> Finite, isolable competences
Training; expected to be acquired through codified knowledge-based courses, degree-programmes, certificates
Existential
Embodied, encultured knowledge
-> Reflexive continuum
A journey to develop, acquire
transnational identity capital
(Kim, 2010)
Existential migration (Greg Madison, 2006); Narrative imagination (Nussbaum, 1997)Slide39
For further discussion and future contact: Terri.Kim@brunel.ac.ukTerri.c.kim@gmail.com