Connectives That Express Cause and Effect, Contrast, and Condition - PowerPoint Presentation

Slide1

Connectives That Express Cause and Effect, Contrast, and ConditionSlide2

Using Because Of and Due To

(a)

Because the weather was cold

,

we stayed home.

Because introduces an adverb clause; it is

followed

by a

subject

and a

verb

, as in (a

).

(b)

Because of the cold weather

,

we stayed home.

(c)

Due to the cold weather

,

we stayed home.

Because

of

and

due to

are

phrasal prepositions

; they are followed by a

noun object

, as in (b) and (c).Slide3

(d)

Due to the fact that the weather was cold

,

we stayed home.

Sometimes (usually in more

formal writing

)

due to

is followed by

a noun clause

introduced by

the fact that

.

(

e) We stayed home

because of the cold

weather

.

We

stayed home

due to the cold weather

.

We

stayed home

due to the fact that the weather

was cold.

Like adverb clauses

, these phrases can also

follow

the main clause, as in (e).Slide4

Exercise 2, p. 397.

1. Cause: Jon is a heavy smoker.

Effect:

Jon has breathing problems.

Because Jon is a heavy smoker, he has

breathing problems

.

2.

Effect-.

Martina feels homesick.

Cause:

Martina moved to a new town.

Martina feels homesick because she moved to

a new

town.

3.

Effect:

Mr. Jordan’s house has no heat.

Cause:

Mr. Jordan lost his job.

Mr. Jordan’s house has no heat because he lost his job.

4.

Cause:

Victor has gained weight.

Effect:

Victor is going to eat less.

Because Victor has gained weight, he is going

to eat

less.Slide5

Exercise 4, p. 398.

2. his wife’s illness3. the noise in the next apartment4. our parents’ generosity

5. circumstances beyond our controlSlide6

Cause

and Effect: Using Therefore, Consequently, and So

(a) Al failed the test

because he didn’t study.

(b) Al didn’t study.

Therefore

, he failed the test.

(c) Al didn’t study.

Consequently

, he failed the test.

Examples (a), (b), and (c) have the

same

meaning.

Therefore

and

consequently

mean “

as a result

.” In grammar, they are called

transitions

(or

conjunctive adverbs

).

Transitions connect the ideas between two sentences. They are used most commonly in formal written English and rarely in spoken English.Slide7

(d) Al didn’t study.

Therefore

,

he failed the test.

(e) Al didn’t study. He,

therefore

,

failed the test.

(f) Al didn’t study. He failed the test,

therefore

.

POSITIONS OF ATRANSTIONS:

transition

+

S

+

V

(+ rest of sentence)

S

+

transition

+

V

(+ rest of sentence)

S

+

V

(+ rest of sentence) +

transition

A transition occurs in the

second

of two related sentences.

Notice

the patterns and punctuation in the examples. A

period

(

not

a comma) is used at the

end

of the

first

sentence.* The transition has

several

positions in the

second

sentence. The transition is

separated

from the rest of the sentence by commas.Slide8

(g) Al didn’t study,

so

he failed the test.

In (g):

So

is used as a

conjunction

between two

independent

clauses. It has the same meaning as

therefore

.

So

is common in both

formal

written and

spoken

English. A

comma

usually

precedes

so

when it connects two sentences, as in (g).Slide9

Exercise 6, p. 399.

1. A storm was approaching. Therefore, the children stayed

home.

2. A storm was approaching. Consequently,

the children

stayed home.

3. A storm was approaching, so the children

stayed home

.

Exercise 7, p. 399.

1. Because it was cold, she wore a coat.

2. (no change)

3. Because of the cold weather, she wore a coat.

4. (no change)

5. The weather was cold. Therefore, she wore a coat.

6. The weather was cold. She wore a coat, therefore.

7. The weather was cold, so she wore a coat.Slide10

Exercise 8, p. 400.

1. Pat always enjoyed studying sciences in high school.Therefore, she decided to major in biology

in college

.

2. Due to recent improvements in the economy,

fewer people

are unemployed.

3. Last night’s storm damaged the power

lines. Consequently

, the town was without electricity.

4.

Due to the snowstorm, only five students came

to class

. The teacher, therefore, canceled the class.Slide11

Summary of Patterns and Punctuation

Adverb Clauses

(a)

Because it was hot

,

we went swimming.

(b) We went swimming

because it was hot

.

An

adverb clause

may

precede

or

follow

an independent clause.

punctuation

: A

comma

is used if the

adverb

clause comes

first

.Slide12

Prepositions

(c)

Because of the hot weather

,

we went swimming.

(d) We went swimming

because of the hot weather

.

A

preposition

is

followed

by a

noun

object

, not by a

subject

and

verb

.

PUNCTUATION

: A

comma

is

usually

used if the prepositional phrase

precedes

the

subject

and

verb

of the independent clause.Slide13

Transitions

(e) It was hot.

Therefore, we went swimming

.

(t) It was hot.

We, therefore, went swimming.

(g) It was hot.

We went swimming, therefore.

A

transition

is used with the

second

sentence of a pair. It shows the relationship of the

second

idea to the

first

idea. A

transition

is

movable

within the

second

sentence.

PUNCTUATION

: A

period

is used between the two independent clauses.* A

comma

may

not

be used to

separate

the clauses.

Commas

are

usually

used to set the transition off from the rest of the sentence.Slide14

*A

semicolon

( ; ) may be used instead of a

period

between the two independent clauses.

It was hot;

therefore, we went swimming.

It was hot;

we, therefore, went swimming.

It was hot;

we went swimming, therefore.

In general, a

semicolon

can be used instead of a period between any

two sentences

that are closely related in meaning:

Peanuts are not nuts

; they are beans.

Notice

that a

small

letter, not a

capital

letter,

immediately

follows a

semicolon

.Slide15

Conjunctions

(

h) It was hot,

so we went swimming.

A conjunction comes

between

two

independent

clauses.

PUNCTUATION

: Usually a

comma

is used immediately in

front

of a

conjunction

.Slide16

Exercise 10, p. 401.

1. The weather was bad. Therefore, we postponed our trip, or We, therefore, postponed our trip, or We postponed our trip, therefore.

2. Since the weather was bad, we postponed our trip.

OR We postponed our trip since the weather was bad.

3. The weather was bad, so we postponed our trip.

4. Because of the bad weather, we postponed our trip.

OR We postponed our trip because of the bad weather.

5. The weather was bad. Consequently, we postponed our trip. OR We, consequently, postponed our trip.

OR We postponed our trip, consequently.

6. Due to the fact that the weather was bad, we postponed our trip. OR We postponed our trip due to the fact that the weather was bad.Slide17

Exercise 11, p. 401.

2. Pat doesn’t want to return to the Yukon to live because the winters are too severe, or Because the winters are too severe, Pat doesn’t want to return to the Yukon to live.

3. It is important to wear a hat on cold days since we lose sixty percent of our body heat through our head, or Since we lose sixty percent of our body heat through our head, it is important to wear a hat on cold days.

4. Bill’s car wouldn’t start. Therefore, he couldn’t pick us up after the concert, or He, therefore, couldn’t pick us up after the concert, or He couldn’t pick us up after the concert, therefore.

5. When I was in my teens and twenties, it was easy for me to get into an argument with my father because both of us can be stubborn and opinionated.

6. Due to the fact that a camel can go completely without water for eight to ten days, it is an ideal animal for desert areas, o r A camel is an ideal animal for desert areas due to the fact that it can go completely without water for eight to ten days.

7. Robert got some new business software that didn’t work, so he emailed the software company for technical support.Slide18

8. A tomato is classified as a fruit, but most people consider it a vegetable since it is often eaten in salads along with lettuce, onions, cucumbers, and other vegetables, or Since it is often eaten in salads along with lettuce, onions, cucumbers, and other vegetables, a tomato is considered a vegetable.

9. Due to consumer demand for ivory, many African elephants are being slaughtered ruthlessly.

Consequently, many people who care about saving these animals from extinction refuse to buy any item made from ivory, or Many people who care about saving these animals from extinction, consequently, refuse to buy any item made from ivory. OR Many people who care about saving these animals from extinction refuse to buy any item made from ivory, consequently.

10. Because most 15th-century Europeans believed the world was flat and that a ship could conceivably sail off the end of the earth, many sailors of the time refused to venture forth with explorers into unknown waters. OR Many sailors of the 15

th

century refused to venture forth with explorers into unknown waters because most Europeans of the time believed the world was flat and that a ship could conceivably sail off the end of the earth.Slide19

Other Ways of Expressing Cause and Effect

: Such ... That and So ... That

(a )

Because the weather was nice

, we went to the zoo.

(b ) It was

such nice weather that

we

went to the zoo.

(c ) The weather was

so nice that

we

went to the zoo.

Examples

(a), (b), and (c) have the same meaning.Slide20

(d ) It was

such good coffee that

I

had another cup.

(e ) It was

such a foggy day that

we

couldn’t see the road

.

Such . . . that

encloses a

modified

noun:

such

+

adjective

+

noun

+

thatSlide21

( f ) The coffee is

so hot that

I

can’t drink it.

(g ) I'm

so hungry that

I

could eat a horse.

(h ) She speaks

so fast that

I

can’t understand her.

( i ) He walked

so quickly that

I

couldn’t keep up with him.

So . . . that

encloses an

adjective

or

adverb

:

so

+ adjective +that or adverbSlide22

( j ) She made

so many mistakes that

she

failed the exam.

( k) He has

so few friends that

he is always lonely.

(I)

She has

so much money that

she can buy whatever she wants.

(m) He had

so little trouble

with the test

that

he left twenty minutes early.

So . . . that

is used with

many, few, much,

and

little.Slide23

(n ) It was

such a good book

(that)

I

couldn’t put it down.

(o )

I

was

so hungry (that)

I

didn’t wait for dinner to eat something.

Sometimes, primarily in

speaking

,

that

is

omitted

.Slide24

Exercise 15, p. 403.

2. The radio was so loud that I couldn’t hear what Michael was saying.

3. Olga did such poor work that she was fired from her job.

4. The food was so hot that it burned my tongue.

5. There are so many leaves on a single tree that it is impossible to count them.

6. The tornado struck with such great force that it lifted cars off the ground.

7. So few students showed up for class that the teacher postponed the test.

8. Charles used so much paper when he was writing his report that the wastepaper basket overflowed.Slide25

Expressing Purpose: Using So That

(a) I turned off the TV

in order to enable my roommate to study in peace and quiet

.

(b) I turned off the TV

so (that) my roommate could study in peace and quiet.

In order to

expresses purpose. (See Chart

15-1,

p.

331.)

In (a): I turned off the TV for a purpose. The purpose was to make it possible for my roommate to study in peace and quiet.Slide26

So That + Can or Could

(

c) I’m going to cash a check

so that I can buy my textbooks.

(d) I cashed a check

so that I

cou

l

d

buy my textbooks.

So that

also expresses

purpose

* It expresses the

same

meaning as in

order to

. The word “

that

” is often

omitted

, especially in speaking.

NOTE

:

In order that has the same meaning as so that but is less commonly used.Example: I turned off the TV in order that my roommate could study in peace and quiet.Both

so that and in order that

introduce

adverb clauses

. It is

unusual

but possible to put these adverb clauses of a sentence:

So that my roommate could study in peace and quiet

, I turned off the TV.Slide27

So that

is often used instead of

in order to

when the idea of ability is being expressed.

Can

is used in the adverb clause for a

present/future

meaning.

In (c):

so that I can buy

=

in order to be able to buy

Could

is used

after

so that

in

past

sentences, as in (d

).**

**

Also possible but less common

: the use of may or might in place of can or could (e.g., I cashed a check so that I might my

textbooks.).Slide28

So That + Will / Would or Simple Present

(e) I'll take my umbrella

so that I won’t get wet.

(f) Yesterday I took my umbrella

so that I wouldn’t get wet.

(g) I’ll take my umbrella

so that I don’t get wet.

In (e):

so that I won’t get wet

=

in order to make sure that I won’t get wet

Would

is used in past sentences, as in (f).

In (g):

It is sometimes possible to use the

simple present

after so that in place of will;

the simple present

expresses a

future

meaning

.

Slide29

Exercise 17, p. 404.

5. Please be quiet so (that) I can hear what Sharon is saying.

6. I asked the children to be quiet so (that) I could hear what Sharon was saying.

7. I’m going to cash a check so (that) I will have / have enough money to go to the store.

8. I cashed a check yesterday so (that) I would have enough money to go to the store.

9. Tonight Ann and Larry are going to hire a babysitter for their six-year-old child so (that) they can go out with some friends.

10. Last week, Ann and Larry hired a babysitter so (that) they could go to a dinner party at the home of Larry’s boss.Slide30

11. Be sure to put the meat in the oven at 5:00 so (that) it will be/is ready to eat by 6:30.

12. Yesterday, I put the meat in the oven at 5:00 so (that) it would be ready to eat by 6:30.

13. I’m going to leave the party early so (that) I can get a good night’s sleep tonight.

14. When it started to rain, Harry opened his umbrella so (that) he wouldn’t get wet.

15. The little boy pretended to be sick so (that) he could stay home from school.Slide31

Exercise 18, p. 405.

3. I need a visa so that I can travel overseas.

4. I needed a visa, so I went to the embassy to apply for one.

5. Marta is trying to improve her English so that she can become a tour guide.

6. Olga wants to improve her English, so she has hired a tutor.

7.

Tarek

borrowed money from his parents so that he could start his own business.

8. I turned off the TV so that I could concentrate on my paperworkSlide32

Showing Contrast (Unexpected Result)

All of these sentences have the same meaning. The idea of cold weather is contrasted with the idea of going swimming. Usually if the weather is cold, one does not go swimming, so going swimming in cold weather is an “unexpected result.” It is surprising that the speaker went swimming in cold weather.Slide33

Adverb Clauses

even though

although

though

(a )

Even though

it was cold, I went swimming.

( b)

Although

it was cold, I went swimming.

( c)

Though

it was cold, I went swimming.

Conjunctions

but . . . anyway

but . . . still

yet . . . still

( d ) It was cold,

but

I went swimming

anyway

.

( e ) It was cold,

but

I

still

went swimming.

( f ) It was cold,

yet

I

still

went swimming.

Transitions

nevertheless

nonetheless

however. . . still

(g ) It was cold.

Nevertheless,

I went swimming.

(h ) It was cold;

nonetheless

, I went swimming.

( i ) It was cold.

However

, I

still

went swimming.

Prepositions

despite

in spite of

despite the fact that

in spite of the fact that

( j ) I went swimming

despite

the cold weather.

( k) I went swimming

in spite of

the cold weather.

(l)

I went swimming

despite the fact

that

the weather was cold.

(m) I went swimming

in spite of the fact that

the weather was cold.Slide34

Exercise 23, p. 407.

2. Anna’s father gave her some good advice, but she didn’t follow it.

3. Even though Anna’s father gave her some good advice, she didn’t follow it.

4. Anna’s father gave her some good advice. She did not follow it, however.

5. Thomas was thirsty. I offered him some water. He refused it.

6.

(no change)

7. Thomas was

thirsty

. Nevertheless, he refused the glass of water I brought him.

8. Thomas was thirsty, yet he refused to drink the water that I offered him.Slide35

Exercise 24, p. 408.

1. Even though his grades were low, he was admitted to the university, or He was admitted to the university even though his grades were low.

2. His grades were low, but he was admitted to the university anyway.

3. His grades were low, yet he was still admitted to the university.

4. His grades were low. Nonetheless, he was admitted to the university.

5. Despite his low grades, he was admitted to the university.

6. He wasn’t admitted to the university because of his low grades, or Because of his low grades, he wasn’t admitted to the university.Slide36

Showing Direct ContrastAll of the sentences have the same meaning: “This" is the opposite of “that."Slide37

Adverb Clauses

While

(a) Mary is rich,

while

John poor*

(b) John is poor,

while

Mary is rich

.

*

Sometimes a

comma

precedes

a

while-clause

that shows

direct contrast

. A comma helps clarify that while is being used to express

contrast

rather than

time

. The use of a comma in this instance is a stylistic choice by the writer

.

Conjunctions

But

(c) Mary is rich,

but

John is poor.

(d) John is poor,

but

Mary is rich.

Transitions

however

on the other hand

(e) Mary is rich;

however

,

John is poor.

(f) John is poor;

Mary is rich,

however

.

(g) Mary is rich.

John,

on the other hand

, is poor.

(h) John is poor.

Mary,

on the other hand

, is rich.

 Slide38

Exercise 26, p. 409.

Possible answers:

1. Florida has a warm climate; however, Alaska has a cold climate, or Florida has a warm

climate.

Alaska

, on the other hand, has a cold climate.

2. Fred is a good student; however, his brother is lazy. or Fred is a good student. His brother, on the other hand, is lazy.

3. Elderly people in my country usually live with their children; however, the elderly in the United States often live by themselves. OR The elderly in the United States, on the other hand, often live by themselves.Slide39

Expressing Conditions: Using Otherwise and Or (Else)

Adverb Clauses

(a)

If I don’t eat breakfast

,

I get hungry.

(b) You’ll be late

if you don't hurry

.

(c) You’ll get wet

unless you take your umbrella

.

If

and

unless

state

conditions

that produce certain

results

. (See Charts 17-6 and 17-10, pp. 377 and 382.)

Transitions

(d) I always eat breakfast.

Otherwise

, I get hungry during class.

(e) You’d better hurry.

Otherwise

,

you’ll be late.

(f) Take your umbrella.

Otherwise

,

you’ll get wet.

Otherwise

expresses the idea “

if the opposite is true, then there will be a certain result

.”

In (d):

otherwise = if I don’t eat breakfast

Conjunctions

(g) I always eat breakfast,

or (else)

I get hungry during class.

(h) You’d better hurry,

or (else)

you’ll be late.

(i) Take your umbrella,

or (else)

you’ll get wet.

Or else

and

otherwise

have the

same

meaning

 Slide40

Exercise 31, p. 410.

2. You should / had better / have to / must leave now. Otherwise, you’ll be late for class.

3. You should / had better / have to / must have a ticket. Otherwise, you can’t get into the theater.

4. You should / had better / have to / must have a passport. Otherwise, you can't enter that country.

5. Tom should / had better / has to / must get a job soon. Otherwise, his family won’t have enough money for food.

6. You should / had better / have to / must speak both Japanese and Chinese fluently. Otherwise, you will not be considered for that job.

7. Mary should / had better / has to / must get a scholarship. Otherwise, she cannot go to school.

8. I should / had better / have to / must wash my clothes tonight. Otherwise, I won't have any clean clothes to wear tomorrow.Slide41

Summary of Connectives: Cause and Effect, Contrast, and Condition

Adverb Clause Words

Transitions

Conjunctions

Prepositions

Cause and

Effect

because

since

now that

so (that)

therefore

consequently

so

because of

due to

Contrast

even though

although

though

while

however

nevertheless

nonetheless

on the other hand

but ( . . . anyway)

yet ( . . . still)

despite

in spite of

Condition

if

unless

only if

even if

whether or not

in case

otherwise

or (else)

 Slide42

Exercise 32, p. 411.

Possible completions:

2. I failed the exam because I did not study.

3. Although I studied, I did not pass the exam.

4. I did not study. Therefore, I failed the exam.

5. I did not study. However, I passed the exam.

6. I studied. Nevertheless, I failed the exam.

7. Even though I did not study, I (still) passed the exam.

8. I did not study, so I did not pass the exam.

9. Since I did not study, I did not pass the exam.

10. If I study for the exam, I will pass it.Slide43

11. Unless I study for the exam, I will fail it.

12. I must study. Otherwise, I will fail the exam.

13. Even if I study, I won’t pass.

14. I did not study. Consequently, I failed the exam.

15. I did not study. Nonetheless, I passed the exam.

16. I will probably fail the exam whether I study or not.

17. Only if I study will I pass the exam.

18. I studied hard, yet I still failed the exam.

19. You’d better study, or else you will fail the exam.Slide44

Exercise 37, p. 414.

1. We went shopping after we ate / eating dinner, but the stores were closed. We had to go back home even though we hadn’t found what we were looking for.

2. I want to explain that I know a lot of grammar, but my problem is that I don’t have enough vocabulary.

3. When I got lost in the bus station, a kind man helped me. He explained how to read the huge bus schedule on the wall, took me to the window to buy a ticket, and showed me w here m y bus was. I will always appreciate his kindness.

4. I had never understood the importance of knowing the English language / of knowing English until I worked at a large, international company.

5. When I was young, my father found an American woman to teach my brothers and me English, but when we moved to another town, my father wasn’t able to find another teacher for another five years.

6. I was surprised to see the room that I was given at the dormitory because there wasn’t any furniture and it was dirty.Slide45

7. When I me t Mr. Lee for the first time, we played video games at the student center. Even though we couldn’t communicate very well, we had a good time.

8. Because the United States is a large and big country, it has a diverse population.

9. My grammar class started at 10:35. When the teacher came to class, she returned the last quiz to my classmates and me. After that, we had another quiz.

10. If a wife has to work, her husband should share the housework with her. If both of them help, the housework can be finished much faster.

11. The first time I went skiing, I was afraid to go down the hill, but then I thought to myself, “Why not? Give it a try. You’ll make it!” After standing around for ten minutes without moving, I finally decided to go down that hill.