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memory Chapter 8 Studying memory memory Chapter 8 Studying memory

memory Chapter 8 Studying memory - PowerPoint Presentation

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memory Chapter 8 Studying memory - PPT Presentation

Keyboard Encoding Disk Storage Monitor Retrieval Sequential Process Studying memory Memory Persistence of learning over time through the encoding storage and retrieval of information ID: 784040

studying memory information memories memory studying memories information encoding retrieval forgetting term recall associations explicit processing effect storing short

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Slide1

memory

Chapter 8

Slide2

Studying memory

Keyboard

(Encoding)

Disk

(Storage)

Monitor

(Retrieval

Sequential Process

Slide3

Studying memory

Memory

Persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

Evidence of memory Recalling informationRecognizing itRelearning it more easily on a later attempt

Slide4

Studying Memory

EBBINGHAUS’ RETENTION CURVE

found

that the more times he practiced a list of nonsense syllables on day 1, the less time he required to relearn it on day 2. Speed of relearning is one measure of memory retentionThe more you are exposed to information the more likely you are to retain it

Slide5

Studying memory – memory models

Psychologists use memory models to think and communicate about memory

.

Information-processing modelsCompares human memory to computer operationsInvolves three processes: encoding, storage, and retrievalConnectionism information-processing modelFocuses on multitrack, parallel processingViews memories as products of interconnected neural networks

Slide6

Slide7

Studying memory -

memory models

Three processing stages in the Atkinson-Shiffrin model

We first record to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory (info from senses)From there, we process information into short-term memory

, where we encode it through rehearsalFinally, information moves into

long-term memory for later retrieval.

Slide8

Studying memory – encoding memories

Working

memory (short term memory)

Involves newer understanding of short-term memoryFocuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memoryIs handled by a central executive (Baddeley, 2002)

Slide9

Studying memory – Encoding memories

Dual-track memory system

Explicit memories

(declarative memories) of conscious facts and experiences encoded through conscious, effortful processingEx: George Washington was the first president of US

Implicit memories (nondeclarative memories) that form through automatic processes and bypass conscious encoding track

Ex: Riding a bike

Slide10

Slide11

Studying memory - Encoding memories

Automatic processing and implicit memories

Implicit memories include automatic skills and classically conditioned associations.

Information is automatically processed aboutSpaceTimeFrequencyEx: What you ate for lunch

Effortful processing and explicit memories

With experience and practice, explicit memories become automatic.Ex: learning concepts in psychology

Slide12

Slide13

Studying memory – encoding memory

What is sensory memory?

First stage in forming explicit memories

Immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory systemIconic memory

: Picture-image memoryEchoic memory

: Sound memory

Slide14

Studying memory – encoding memory

Encoding by meaning

Encoding by images

Encoding by organization

Slide15

Studying memory – encoding memory

Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding

Showing adverse effects of tanning and smoking

in a picture may be more powerful than simply talking about it.

Slide16

Studying memory – storing memory

Short-term memory

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly (such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing) before the information is stored or forgotten

Working memoryNewer understanding of short-term memory that stresses conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

Slide17

Short-term memory

George Miller (1956)

Magical Number Seven: People can store about seven bits of information (give or take two)

Baddeley and colleagues (1975)Without distraction, about seven digits or about six letters or five wordsWorking memory

Capacity varies by age and distractions at time of memory tasks

Slide18

Studying memory – storing memory

Past research

Whole past is contained in memory—waiting to be relived

Newer findingsFlashback during surgery are new creations of stressed brainInformation is not stored in single, specific spot.Perception, language, emotions and more require brain networks

Slide19

Studying memory – storing memory

Mnemonics

Imagery

is at the heart of many memory aids. Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery in aiding memory.

Method of Loci

Link Method

Slide20

Studying memory – storing memory

Organizing Information for

Encoding

Break down complex information into broad concepts and further subdivide them into categories and subcategories.

Chunking

Hierarchy

Slide21

Studying memory – storing memory

Explicit-Memory

System: Hippocampus And Frontal

Lobes are dedicated to explicit memory formationRegisters and temporarily holds elements of explicit memories before moving them to other brain regions for long-term storage. Neural storage of long-term memories is called memory consolidation

Slide22

Studying memory – storing memory

Implicit memory system: Cerebellum and basal ganglia

Cerebellum plays important role in forming and storing memories created by classical conditioning

Memories of physical skills are also implicit memories.Basal ganglia help form memories for these skills.

Infantile amnesiaConscious memory of first three years is blank.

Command of language and well-developed hippocampus needed

Slide23

Frontal lobes and hippocampus: explicit memory formation

Cerebellum and basal ganglia: implicit memory formation

Amygdala: emotion-related memory formation

Slide24

Studying memory

Excitement or stress triggers hormone production and provokes amygdala to engage memory.

Emotions often persist with or without conscious awareness.

Emotional arousal causes an outpouring of stress hormones, which lead to activity in the brain’s memory-forming areas.Flashbulb memories occur via emotion-triggered hormonal changes and rehearsal.

Slide25

Studying memory

Synaptic changes

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

Increase in a synapse’s firing potentialAfter LTP, brain will not erase memories Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

Slide26

Studying memory - Retrieval cues

Retrieval refers to getting information out of the memory store.

Who are the people on the right?

Slide27

Studying memory - Retrieval

Memory retrieval

Memories held in storage by web of associations

Retrieval cues serve as anchor points for pathways to memory suspended in this web.Best retrieval cues come from associations formed at the time a memory is encodedPrimingActivation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

Priming

Slide28

Studying memory - Retrieval

In

recognition

, the person must identify an item amongst other choices. (A multiple-choice test requires recognition.)Name the capital of France.

Brussels

RomeLondonParis

In recall, the person must retrieve information using effort. (A fill-in-the blank test requires recall.)The capital of France is ______.

Slide29

Studying memory – retrieval

Memory retrieval

cues

PrimingContext-dependent memoryState-dependent memorySerial position effect

Slide30

Studying memory - Retrieval

PRIMING—AWAKENING

ASSOCIATIONS

Priming allows up to make associations After seeing or hearing rabbit, we are later more likely to spell the spoken word as h-a-r-e.

Associations unconsciouslyactivate related associations.

This process is called priming. (Adapted from Bower, 1986.)

Slide31

Slide32

Studying memory - Retrieval

Context-dependent memory

Involves improved recall of specific information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same

Encoding specificity principleSuggests cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping recall

Slide33

Studying memory - Retrieval

State-dependent memory

Involves tendency to recall events consistent with current good or bad mood (mood-congruent memory)

Mood-congruent memory Involves tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad moodSerial position effectInvolves tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list

Slide34

Studying memory - Retrieval

Serial Position Effect:

When your recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items

.

Slide35

Studying memory – encoding, capacity, and durati0n

Feature

Sensory

Memory

Working Memory

LTM

Encoding

Copy

Phonemic

Semantic

Capacity

Unlimited7±2 Chunks

Very LargeDuration0.25 sec.

20 sec.Years

Slide36

Studying memory - forgetting

Humans have two distinct memory systems controlled by different parts of the brain

.

Forgetting has several causesEncoding failureStorage decayRetrieval failureInterferenceMotivated forgetting

Slide37

We cannot remember what we have not encoded.

Slide38

Studying memory - forgetting

Encoding failure

Age

: Encoding lag is linked to age-related memory declineAttention: Failure to notice or encode contributes to memory failureStorage decayCourse of forgetting is initially rapid, and then levels off with time

Physical changes in the brain occur as memory forms (memory trace).

Slide39

Slide40

Studying memory - forgetting

Reason for Failure

Events

and memories are not available because these were never acquired.Memories have been discarded due to stored memory decay.Insufficient information to access memories make these out of reach.

Slide41

Studying memory - forgetting

Interference

Proactiv

e: Occurs when older memory makes it more difficult to remember new informationRetroactive: Occurs when new learning disrupts memory for older information

If the Spanish (new info) were to interfere with the French (old info) it would be retroactive interference

Slide42

Studying memory - forgetting

Motivated forgetting

Freud

: Repressed memories protect self-concept and minimize anxiety.repressionToday: Attempts to forget are more likely when information is neutral, not emotional.

Slide43

Studying memory - forgetting

WHEN DO WE FORGET

?

Forgetting can occur at any memory stage.

As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose

much of it.

Slide44

Studying memory - forgetting

Misinformation and imagination effects

Misinformation effect

occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information.Imagination effect occurs when repeatedly imagining fake actions and events can create false memories.

Slide45

Studying memory - forgetting

Source amnesia (source misattribution)

Involves faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagine

déjà vu Is sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Suggests cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

Slide46

Studying memory - forgetting

FALSE MEMORIES

False

memories feel like real memories and can be persistent but are usually limited to the gist of the event.False memories are often a result of faulty eyewitness testimony.

Children’s eyewitness recallCeci

and BruckResearchers studied effect of suggestive interviewing techniques.58 percent of preschoolers produced false stories about one or more unexperienced events.Children often accurately recall events and actorsNeutral personNonleading questions soon after event containing words children can understand

Slide47

Studying memory - forgetting

Repressed or Constructed Memories of Abuse

?

The debate between memory researchers and some well-meaning therapists focuses on whether most memories of early childhood abuse are repressed and can be recovered during therapy using “memory work” techniques using leading questions or hypnosis.What do you think?

Slide48

Those committed to protecting abused children and those committed to protecting wrongly accused adults have agreed on the following

:

Sexual abuse happens.

Injustice happens.Forgetting happens.Recovered memories are commonplace.Memories of things happening before age 3 are unreliable.Memories “recovered” under hypnosis are especially unreliable.Memories, whether real or false, can be emotionally upsetting.

Slide49

Studying memory – improving memory

SQ3R (Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review) study technique used in this book incorporates several learning strategies.

Rehearse repeatedly

Make the material meaningfulActivate retrieval cuesUse mnemonic devicesMinimize interferenceSleep moreTest your own knowledge, both to rehearse it and to find out what you do not yet know