Supply and Demand Slides created by Dr Amy Scott WAKE UP AND DONT SMELL THE COFFEE Who decided to raise the prices of coffee beans Nobody prices went up because of events outside anyones control ID: 639528
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Slide1
Chapter 3
©2010
Worth Publishers
Supply and Demand
Slides created by Dr. Amy ScottSlide2
WAKE UP AND DON’T SMELL THE COFFEE
Who decided to raise the prices of coffee beans? Nobody: prices went up because of events outside anyone’s control.The main cause of rising bean prices was a significant decline in the supply of coffee beans from the world’s two leading coffee exporters: Brazil and Vietnam.
In this chapter, we lay out the pieces that make up the supply and demand model,, and show how this model can be used to understand how many markets behave.Slide3
Chapter Objectives
Competitive MarketSupply and demand model
Demand curveThe difference between movements along a curve
and shifts of a curveSupply curve
Equilibrium price and quantity
as determined by supply and demand curves
Shortage
or
surplus
and
how price
moves the market back to
equilibrium
New equilibrium
after shifts of the curvesSlide4
Competitive Market
A competitive market is:
Has many buyers and sellers Offers same good or serviceNo individual’s actions have a noticeable effect on the price at which the good or service is sold.
In other words: no one party can influence priceBehavior of this type of market is well described by
Supply and DemandSlide5
Supply and Demand Model
The supply and demand model is a model of how a competitive market works.
It has five key elements:Demand curveSupply curve
Demand and supply curve shiftsMarket equilibriumChanges in the market equilibriumSlide6
Demand Curve
A demand curve is the graphical representation of the demand schedule;it shows how much of a good or service consumers want to buy at any given price.
Law of Demand: A higher a price for a good, other things equal, leads people to demand smaller quantities of that good.Slide7
Demand Schedule
A demand schedule shows how much of a good or service consumers will want to
buy at different prices.
7.1
7.5
8.1
8.9
10.0
11.5
14.2
Price of coffee beans (per pound)
Quantity of coffee beans demanded (billions of pounds)
1.75
1.50
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
$2.00
Demand Schedule for Coffee BeansSlide8
Demand Curve
A demand curve is the graphical representation of the demand schedule; it shows how much of a good or service consumers want to buy at any given price.
7
0
9
11
15
13
17
$2.00
1.75
1.50
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
Price of coffee bean (per gallon)
Quantity of coffee beans (billions of pounds)
Demand curve, D
As price rises, the quantity demanded fallsSlide9
Because of high taxes, gasoline and diesel fuel are more than twice as expensive in most European countries as in the United States.
According to the law of demand, Europeans should buy less gasoline than Americans, and they do: Europeans consume less than half as much fuel as Americans, mainly because they drive smaller cars with better mileage.
Pay More, Pump LessSlide10
An Increase in Demand
An increase in the population and other factors generate an increase in demand – a rise in the quantity demanded at any given price.
This is represented by the two demand schedules - one showing demand in 2002, before the rise in population, the other showing demand in 2009, after the rise in population.
7.1
7.5
8.1
8.9
10.0
11.5
14.2
8.5
9.0
9.7
10.7
12.0
13.8
17.0
in 2002
in 2009
$2.00
1.75
1.50
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
Price of coffee beans (per pound)
Quantity of coffee beans demanded (billions of pounds)
Demand Schedules for Coffee BeansSlide11
A
shift of the demand curve is a change in the quantity demanded at any given price, represented by the change of the original demand curve to a new position, denoted by a new demand curve.
Increase in population
more coffee drinkers
Price of coffee beans (per gallon)
7
0
9
11
15
13
17
$2.00
1.75
1.50
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
D
1
D
2
Demand curve in 2009
Demand curve in 2002
Quantity of coffee beans (billions of pounds)
An Increase in DemandSlide12
Movement Along the Demand Curve
7
8.1
9.7
0
10
15
13
17
$2.00
1.75
1.50
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
D
1
D
2
A
C
B
A shift of the demand curve…
… is not the same thing as a movement along the demand curve
Price of coffee beans (per gallon)
Quantity of coffee beans (billions of pounds)
A
movement along
the demand curve is a
change in the quantity demanded
of a good that is the
result of a change in that good’s price
.Slide13
Shifts of the Demand Curve
A “decrease in demand”, means a leftward shift of the demand curve: at any given price, consumers demand a smaller quantity than before. (D1
D3)
Price
Quantity
D
3
D
1
D
2
Increase in demand
Decrease in demand
An “
increase in demand
” means a
rightward
shift of the demand curve: at any given price, consumers demand a larger quantity than before. (D1
D2)Slide14
Demand versus Quantity Demanded
A shift of the demand curve is a change in the quantity demanded at any given price
, represented by the change of the original demand curve to a new position, denoted by a new demand curve.A movement along the demand curve is a change in the quantity demanded
of a good that is the result of a change in that good’s price.Slide15
What Causes a Demand Curve to Shift?
Changes in the Prices of Related GoodsSubstitutes:
Two goods are substitutes if a fall in the price of one of the goods makes consumers less willing to buy the other good.Ex., Coke vs. Pepsi
Complements: Two goods are
complements if a fall in the price of one good makes people more willing to buy the other good.
Ex., Hot dogs and Hot Dog bunsSlide16
What Causes a Demand Curve to Shift?
2. Changes in IncomeNormal Goods
: When a rise in income increases the demand for a good – that good is a normal good.
Inferior Goods: When a rise in income decreases the demand for a good, it is an inferior good.
3. Changes in Tastes
4. Changes in Expectations
5. Changes in number of consumersSlide17
Individual Demand Curve and the Market Demand Curve
The market demand curve is the
horizontal sum
of the individual demand curves of all consumers in that market.
D
Darla
D
Dino
0
0
10
20
30
20
0
$2
1
$2
1
$2
1
30
40
50
D
Market
(a)
Darla’s Individual Demand Curve
(b)
Dino’s Individual Demand Curve
(c)
Market Demand Curve
Price of coffee beans (per pound)
Price of coffee beans (per pound)
Price of coffee beans (per pound)
Quantity of coffee beans (pounds)
Quantity of coffee beans (pounds)
Quantity of coffee beans (pounds)Slide18
Beating the Traffic
All cities have traffic problems and many local authorities try to discourage driving to the city.In 2003, London imposed a ‘congestion charge’ of £8 (about $13) on all cars entering the city during business hours. If people pay the day after they have driven then the charge increases to £10 (about $16). If they don’t pay and get caught the fine is £120 (about $195).
The result of this new policy confirms the law of demand: three years after the charge was put in place, traffic in central London was about 10 percent lower than before the charge.Slide19
C. People buy more long-stem roses the week of Valentine’s Day, even though the prices are higher than at other times during the year.
This represents a shift of the demand curve.This represents a movement along the demand curve.
Explain whether each of the following events represents (i) a shift of the demand curve or (ii) a movement along the demand curve
D. The sharp rise in the price of gasoline leads many commuters to join carpools in order to reduce their gasoline purchases.
This represents a shift of the demand curve.
This represents a movement along the demand curve.Slide20
Supply Curve
A supply curve is the graphical representation of the supply schedule; it shows how much of a good or service producers are willing to sell at any given price.
Law of Supply: A higher price for a good, other things equal, the greater the quantities of that good is produced.Slide21
Supply Schedule
A supply schedule
shows how much of a good or service would be supplied at different prices.
Supply Schedule for Coffee Beans
Price of
coffee beans
(per pound)
Quantity of
coffee beans
supplied
(billions of pounds)
$2.00
11.6
1.75
11.5
1.50
11.2
1.25
10.7
1.00
10.0
0.75
9.1
0.50
8.0Slide22
Supply Curve
Quantity of coffee beans (billions of pounds)
Price of coffee beans (per pound)
7
0
9
11
15
13
17
$2.00
1.75
1.50
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
As price rises, the quantity supplied rises.
A
supply curve
shows graphically how much of a good or service people are willing to sell at any given price.
Supply curve, SSlide23
An Increase in Supply
The entry of Vietnam into the coffee bean business generated an increase in supply—a rise in the quantity supplied at any given price. This event is represented by the two supply schedules—one showing supply before Vietnam’s entry, the other showing supply after Vietnam came in.
Supply Schedule for Coffee Beans
Price of coffee beans
(per pound)
Quantity of beans supplied
(billions of pounds)
Before entry
After entry
$2.00
11.6
13.9
1.75
11.5
13.8
1.50
11.2
13.4
1.25
10.7
12.8
1.00
10.0
12.0
0.75
9.1
10.9
0.50
8.0
9.6Slide24
An Increase in Supply
A shift of the supply curve is a change in the quantity supplied of a good at any given price.
Vietnam enters coffee bean business
more coffee producers
7
0
9
11
13
15
17
$2.00
1.75
1.50
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
S
1
S
2
Price of coffee beans (per pound)
Quantity of coffee beans (billions of pounds)
… is not the same thing as a shift of the supply curve
A movement along the supply curve…Slide25
Movement Along the Supply Curve Versus Shift of the Supply Curve
A movement along the supply curve is a change in the quantity supplied of a good that is the result of a change in that good’s price.
7
0
10
11.2
12
15
17
$2.00
1.75
1.50
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
S
1
S
2
A
C
B
Price of coffee beans (per pound)
Quantity of coffee beans (billions of pounds)
… is not the same thing as a shift of the supply curve
A movement along the supply curve…Slide26
Any “
increase in supply” means a rightward shift of the supply curve: at any given price, there is an increase in the quantity supplied. (S1 S2)
Shifts of the Supply Curve
S
3
S
1
S
2
Price
Quantity
Decrease in supply
Increase in supply
Any “
decrease in supply
” means a
left
ward shift of the supply curve: at any given price, there is a decrease in the quantity supplied. (S1
S3)Slide27
Changes in input prices
An input is a good that is used to produce another good.Changes in the prices of related goods and services
Changes in technologyChanges in expectationsChanges in the number of producers
What Causes a Supply Curve to Shift?Slide28
Individual Supply Curve and the Market Supply Curve
The market supply curve is the
horizontal sum
of the individual supply curves of all firms in that market.
S
Figueroa
S
Bien Pho
1
2
3
1
2
2
3
1
4
5
0
0
0
$2
1
$2
1
$2
1
S
Market
(a)
Mr. Figueroa’s Individual Supply Curve
(b)
Mr. Bien Pho’s Individual Supply Curve
(c)
Market Supply Curve
Price of coffee beans (per pound)
Price of coffee beans (per pound)
Price of coffee beans (per pound)
Quantity of coffee beans (pounds)
Quantity of coffee beans (pounds)
Quantity of coffee beans (pounds)Slide29
Only creatures small and pampered
During the 1970s there was a popular British television show entitled All Creatures Great and Small that chronicled the life of a country veterinarian.Today, veterinarians make more money tending to small animals than to farm animals. Consequently there has been a large drop off in the number of farm veterinarians and an increase in the number of veterinarians tending to pets.Slide30
A. More homeowners put their houses up for sale during a real estate boom that causes prices to rise.
This represents a shift of the supply curve.This represents a movement along the supply curve.
Explain whether each of the following events represents (i) a shift of the supply curve or (ii) a movement along the supply curve
B. Many strawberry farmers open temporary roadside stands during harvest season, even though prices are usually low at that time.
This represents a shift of the supply curve.
This represents a movement along the supply curve.Slide31
This represents a shift of the supply curve.
This represents a movement along the supply curve.
Explain whether each of the following events represents (i) a shift of the supply curve or (ii) a movement along the supply curveC. Immediately after the school year begins, fast-food chains must raise wages to attract workers.
D. Many construction workers temporarily move to areas that have suffered hurricane damage, lured by higher wages offered.This represents a shift of the supply curve.
This represents a movement along the supply curve.Slide32
E. Since new technologies have made it possible to build larger ships (which are cheaper to run per passenger), Caribbean cruise lines have offered more berths, at lower prices, than before.
This represents a shift of the supply curve.This represents a movement along the supply curve.
Explain whether each of the following events represents (i) a shift of the supply curve or (ii) a movement along the supply curveSlide33
Supply, Demand and Equilibrium
Equilibrium in a competitive market is when
quantity demanded = quantity supplied
The price at which this takes place is the equilibrium price (a.k.a. market-clearing price):
Every buyer finds a seller and vice versa.
The quantity of the good bought and sold at that price is the
equilibrium quantity.
Slide34
Market equilibrium occurs at point E, where the supply curve and the demand curve intersect.
Price of coffee beans (per pound)
Quantity of coffee beans (billions of pounds)
7
0
10
15
13
17
$2.00
1.75
1.50
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
Supply
Demand
E
Equilibrium
Equilibrium price
Equilibrium quantity
Market EquilibriumSlide35
Bought and Sold
Sometimes the bought and sold price are not the same because there is a middlemanA middleman brings buyers and sellers together by buying from buyers, marking it up and selling to sellers.
PITFALLSSlide36
Surplus and Shortage
Surplus of a good is when quantity supplied > quantity demanded.
Surpluses occur when the price is above its equilibrium level.
Shortage of a good is when quantity demanded >
quantity supplied
Shortages occur when the
price is below
its equilibrium level. Slide37
There is a
surplus
of a good when the quantity supplied exceeds the quantity demanded. Surpluses occur when the price is above its equilibrium level.
7
0
10
15
13
17
$2.00
1.75
1.50
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
Supply
Demand
8.1
11.2
E
Surplus
Quantity demanded
Quantity supplied
Price of coffee beans (per pound)
Quantity of coffee beans (billions of pounds)
SurplusSlide38
7
0
10
15
13
17
$2.00
1.75
1.50
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
Supply
Demand
9.1
11.5
E
Shortage
Quantity demanded
Quantity supplied
Price of coffee beans (per pound)
Quantity of coffee beans (billions of pounds)
There is a
shortage
of a good when the quantity demanded exceeds the quantity supplied. Shortages occur when the price is below its equilibrium level.
ShortageSlide39
Compare the box office price for a recent Justin Timberlake concert in Miami, Florida, to the StubHub.com price for seats in the same location: $88.50 versus $155.
Why is there such a big difference in prices? For major events, buying tickets from the box office means waiting in very long lines. Ticket buyers who use Internet resellers have decided that the opportunity cost
of their time is too high to spend waiting in line. For those major events with online box offices selling tickets at face value, tickets often sell out within minutes. In this case, some people who want to go to the concert badly but have missed out on the opportunity to buy cheaper tickets from the online box office are willing to pay the higher Internet reseller price.
The Price of Admission: Slide40
In the following situation, the market is initially in equilibrium.
A) 2005 was a very good year for California wine-grape growers, who produced a bumper-sized crop. This causes:
a shortage of grapes and prices rise.a shortage of grapes and prices fall.a surplus of grapes and prices rise.
a surplus of grapes and prices fall.Slide41
a shortage of hotel rooms and prices rise.
a shortage of hotel rooms and prices fall.
a surplus of hotel rooms and prices rise.a surplus of hotel rooms and prices fall.
B) After a hurricane, Florida hoteliers often find that people cancel their upcoming vacations, leaving them with empty hotel rooms. This causes:
In the following situation, the market is initially in equilibrium. Slide42
C) After a heavy snowfall, many people want to buy secondhand snow blowers at the local tool shop. This causes:
a shortage of secondhand snow blowers and prices rise.a shortage of secondhand snow blowers and prices fall.
a surplus of secondhand snow blowers and prices rise.a surplus of secondhand snow blowers and prices fall.
In the following situation, the market is initially in equilibrium. Slide43
Equilibrium and Shifts of the Demand Curve
Q
2
Q
1
P
2
P
1
D
2
Supply
D
1
E
2
E
1
Price of coffee beans
Quantity of coffee beans
Price rises
Quantity rises
An increase in demand…
… leads to a movement along the supply curve due to a higher equilibrium price and higher equilibrium quantitySlide44
Equilibrium and Shifts of the Supply Curve
P
2
P
1
Q
1
Q
2
Demand
E
1
S
1
S
2
E
2
Price of coffee beans
Quantity of coffee beans
Price rises
Quantity falls
A decrease in supply…
… leads to a movement along the demand curve due to a higher equilibrium price and lower equilibrium quantitySlide45
Technology Shifts of the Supply Curve
Price
Quantity
S
1
Demand
E
1
E
2
An increase in supply …
P
2
P
1
Q
1
Q
2
… leads to a movement along the demand curve to a lower equilibrium price and higher equilibrium quantity.
Price falls
Quantity increases
S
2
Technological innovation
: In the early 1970s, engineers learned how to put microscopic electronic components onto a silicon chip; progress in the technique has allowed ever more components to be put on each chip. Slide46
Simultaneous Shifts of Supply and Demand
Two opposing forces determining the equilibrium quantity.
The increase in demand dominates the decrease in supply.
Quantity of coffee
Q
2
Q
1
P
2
P
1
S
2
D
2
D
1
S
1
E
1
E
2
(
a)
One possible outcome: Price Rises, Quantity Rises
Price of coffee
Small decrease in supply
Large increase in demand
New equilibrium depends on the magnitude of the shiftsSlide47
Simultaneous Shifts of Supply and Demand
Two opposing forces determining the equilibrium quantity.
Q
1
Q
2
P
2
P
1
S
2
D
2
D
1
S
1
E
1
E
2
(b)
Another Possibility Outcome: Price Rises, Quantity Falls
Price of coffee
Quantity of coffee
Large decrease in supply
Small increase in demandSlide48
Simultaneous Shifts of Supply and Demand
We can make the following predictions about the outcome when the supply and demand curves shift simultaneously:
Simultaneous Shifts of Supply and Demand
Supply Increases
Supply Decreases
Demand Increases
Price
: ambiguous
Quantity
: up
Price
: up
Quantity
: ambiguous
Demand Decreases
Price
: down
Quantity
: ambiguous
Price
: ambiguous
Quantity: downSlide49
Which Curve is it Anyway?
When the price of a good changes, in general this reflects a change in either supply or demand.But which curve? A hint is to look at the quantity.If the quantity changes in the same direction as price then this suggests the demand curve has shifted.
If quantity changes in the opposite direction as price, the likely cause is a shift in the supply curve.PITFALLSSlide50
The ease of transmitting photos over the Internet and the relatively low cost of international travel
beautiful young women from all over the world, eagerly trying to make it as models =
influx of aspiring models from around the worldIn addition the tastes of many of those who hire models have changed they prefer celebrities
What happened to the equilibrium price of a young (not a celebrity) fashion model? Use your supply and demand curves to determine the salaries of “America’s Next Best Models”…Tribulations on the RunwaySlide51
The “
war on drugs” shifts the supply curve to the left.
However, we can see by comparing the original equilibrium E1 with the new equilibrium E2 that the actual reduction in the quantity of drugs supplied is much smaller than the shift of the supply curve.
The equilibrium price has risen from P1 to P2, and this induces suppliers to provide drugs despite the risks.
Another Example: Supply, Demand and Controlled Substances
Price
Quantity
S
1
Demand
E
1
E
2
P
2
P
1
Q
1
Q
2
Price rises
Quantity falls
S
2Slide52
There was a sharp rise in the price of tortillas, a staple food of Mexico’s poor, which had gone from 25 cents a pound to between 35 and 45 cents a pound in just a few months in early 2007.
Why were tortilla prices soaring?
It was a classic example of what happens to equilibrium prices when supply falls. Tortillas are made from corn; much of Mexico’s corn is imported from the United States, with the price of corn in both countries basically set in the U.S. corn market. U.S. corn prices were rising rapidly thanks to surging demand in a new market: the market for ethanol.
The Great Tortilla CrisisSlide53
A recent drought in Australia reduced the amount of grass on which Australian dairy cows could feed, thus limiting the amount of milk these cows produced for export.
At the same time, a new tax levied by the government of Argentina raised the price of the milk the country exported, thereby decreasing Argentine milk sales worldwide. These two developments produced a supply shortage in the world market, which dairy farmers in Europe couldn’t fill because of strict production
quotas set by the European Union. Demand and Supply Shifts at Work in the Global EconomySlide54
In China, meanwhile, demand for milk and milk products increased, as rising income levels drove higher per-capita consumption.
All these occurrences resulted in a strong upward pressure on the price of milk everywhere in 2007.
Demand and Supply Shifts at Work in the Global EconomySlide55
gasoline
carsAs the price of gasoline fell in the United States during the 1990s, more people bought large cars. What is the market in question in this scenario?Slide56
As the price of gasoline fell in the United States during the 1990s, more people bought large cars. Did supply or demand shift, and which way?
1. supply shifted left2. supply shifted right
3. demand shifted left4. demand shifted rightSlide57
As the price of gasoline fell in the United States during the 1990s, more people bought large cars. What is the effect on prices and quantity?
1. quantity and price fell2. quantity and price rose3. quantity fell and price rose
4. quantity rose and price fellSlide58
As technological innovation has lowered the cost of recycling used paper, fresh paper made from recycled stock is used more frequently. What is the market in question in this scenario?
1. recycled paper2. fresh paper made from recycled paperSlide59
As technological innovation has lowered the cost of recycling used paper, fresh paper made from recycled stock is used more frequently. Does supply or demand shift, and which way?
1. supply shifts left2. supply shifts right3. demand shifts left
4. demand shifts rightSlide60
As technological innovation has lowered the cost of recycling used paper, fresh paper made from recycled stock is used more frequently. What is the effect on price and quantity?
1. quantity and price fell2. quantity and price rose3. quantity fell and price rose
4. quantity rose and price fellSlide61
As a local cable company offers cheaper pay-per-view films, local movie theaters have more unfilled seats. What is the market in question in this scenario?
pay-per-view movies
movies at a local movie theaterSlide62
As a local cable company offers cheaper pay-per-view films, local movie theaters have more unfilled seats. Does supply or demand shift, and which way?
supply shifts left
supply shifts right
demand shifts leftdemand shifts rightSlide63
As a local cable company offers cheaper pay-per-view films, local movie theaters have more unfilled seats. What is the effect on prices and quantity?
quantity and price fall
quantity and price rise
quantity falls and price risesquantity rises and price fallsSlide64
Periodically, a computer chip maker like Intel introduces a new chip that is faster than the previous one. In response, demand for computers using the earlier chip decreases as customers put off purchases in anticipation of machines containing the new chip.
Simultaneously, computer makers increase their production of computers containing the earlier chip in order to clear out their stocks of those chips.Slide65
1. it shifts left2. it shift right
What happens to the supply curve for computers using the earlier chip?Slide66
1. it shifts left2. it shift right
What happens to the demand curve for computers using the earlier chip?Slide67
1. True2. False
The equilibrium quantity for computers using the earlier chip must fall.Slide68
1. True2. False
The equilibrium price for computers using the earlier chip must fall.Slide69
The supply and demand model
illustrates how a competitive market works.The
demand schedule shows the quantity demanded at each price and is represented graphically by a demand curve. The
law of demand says that demand curves slope downward.
A movement along the demand curve occurs when a
price change
leads to a change in the quantity demanded. When economists talk of increasing or decreasing demand, they mean
shifts of the demand curve
—a change in the quantity demanded at any given price.
1 of 4
SummarySlide70
There are five main factors that shift the demand curve:
1. A change in the prices of related goods or services2. A change in income
3. A change in tastes4. A change in expectations5. A change in the number of consumers
The market demand curve for a good or service is the horizontal sum of the individual demand curves of all consumers in the market.
The supply schedule shows the
quantity supplied
at each price and is represented graphically by a
supply curve.
Supply curves usually slope upward.
2 of 4
SummarySlide71
A
movement along the supply curve occurs when a price change leads to a change in the quantity supplied. When economists discuss increasing or decreasing supply, they mean shifts of the supply curve—a change in the quantity supplied at any given price.
There are five main factors that shift the supply curve:A change in input
pricesA change in the prices of related goods and services
A change in technology
A change in expectations
A change in the number of producers
The market supply curve for a good or service is the horizontal sum of the
individual supply curves
of all producers in the market.
3 of 4
SummarySlide72
The supply and demand model is based on the principle that the price in a market moves to its
equilibrium price, (market-clearing price), the price at which the quantity demanded = quantity supplied. This quantity is the equilibrium quantity.
When the price is above its market-clearing level, there is a surplus that pushes the price down. When the price is below its market-clearing level, there is a shortage that pushes the price up.
An increase in demand increases both the equilibrium price and the equilibrium quantity; a decrease in demand has the opposite effect. An increase in supply reduces the equilibrium price and increases the equilibrium quantity; a decrease in supply has the opposite effect.Shifts of the demand curve and the supply curve can happen simultaneously.
4 of 4
SummarySlide73
Coming attraction
Chapter 4: Consumer and Producer Surplus
The End of Chapter 3