Environmental issues and security Safeguarding the

Nature of Aircraft Accidents The remaining 80% of recent accidents occur within the airport active movement areas (i.e., runways, taxiways, and aircraft parking areas), an area 500 ft of the active runway centerline and 3000 ft of its threshold—the critical rescue and fire-fighting response area.
It is where human lives get lost or aircraft are damaged in accidents due to unnecessary obstructions and unfortunate crashes.
It is here where airport design could be improved and can be more safety conscious and most effective.
Measures related to removing any obstruction hazards from runway approach areas would prevent potential damage to aircraft in runway incursion incidents<br>

Categorization of aircraft incidents Airport emergency managers categorize aircraft incidents on airports into:
Undershoots. Constituting 40% of all incidents, where landing aircraft contact the ground or some elevated obstructions prior to the runway threshold.
Due to the relatively high speed of the approach, the aircraft frequently continues its momentum and comes to rest near the runway, with severe structural damage usually occurring to the aircraft.
Such accidents are typical of bad weather influence on the pilot’s bad judgment of approach and touch-down area or wind shear and microburst.
Runway Veer-Off. Constituting 35% of all incidents where the aircraft pilot loses directional control on either landing or takeoff caused by tire or break failure, skidding on a wet or icy runway during strong crosswind conditions.
Runway Overrun. Constituting 25% of incidents and it occurs on landing caused by hydroplaning on an excessively wet runway, skidding on ice or snow, or excessive landing speed due to pilot error or misjudgment. A rejected takeoff would cause overruns caused by mechanical failure prior to liftoff, excessive aircraft weight, or a blown tire.<br>

AIRPORT EMERGENCY PLANNING The major characteristics and components of a typical AEP include a definition of the scope and purpose, content and function, organization and development framework, training, and communication:
1. Definition. An airport emergency is an occurrence or instance, natural or manmade, which warrants action to protect and save lives, maintain public health, prevent or minimize property and infrastructure damage, and bring the airport back to normal operation and regular business.
2. Purpose. As prerequisite to airport certification, airports shall develop and maintain an AEP designed to minimize the possibility and extent of personal injury and property damage on the airport in an emergency.
The AEP must be developed to facilitate the timely and appropriate response to emergencies occurring on or in the immediate vicinity of airports.
The principal goal of the AEP is to prepare the organization to render adequate assistance and minimize further injury and damage to persons and property involved in the emergency situation.<br>

3. Structure and Content. The AEP must include the procedures for promptresponse to the emergencies, including:• Aircraft incidents and accidents, including bomb incidents, where designated parking areas must be ready for aircraft involved• Structural fires• Natural disasters• Medical and health disasters and radiological incidents• Acts of terrorism, sabotage, hijack incidents, and other unlawful interference with operations• Catastrophic failure of power• Water rescue situations<br>

4. Function and Organization. The AEP can provide the functional framework that:
• Assigns responsibility to organizations and individuals to carry out specificactions at projected times and places in responding to a specific emergency
• Sets forth lines of authority and organizational relationships and shows how all actions should be coordinated
• Describes how people and property will be protected in emergencies anddisasters
• Identifies personnel, equipment, facilities, supplies, and other resourcesavailable—within the airport or by agreement with other agencies or communities—for use during response and recovery operations
• As a public document, cites its legal basis, states objectives, acknowledgesassumptions, and sets communication links for coordination
• Facilitates response and short-term recovery to set the stage for successfullong-term recovery<br>

The functional elements of the AEP are structured into:
• Direction, command, and control
• Communication
• Alert and warning
• Emergency public information
• Protective actions
• Law enforcement
• Fire and rescue
• Health and medical
• Resource management
• Airport operations and maintenance<br>

5. Plan Preparation. Development of the AEP includes:
• A rough draft of all elements to serve the planning team
• Committees to manage the AEP sections, through developing timelines, tasks, and schedules for follow-up meetings
• Liaising with airport stakeholders, agencies, and committee
• Preparing standardized graphics, charts, maps, etc.,
• Producing the AEP document and circulating it to the stakeholder representatives on the planning team
• Prepare airport facilities’ plans and drawings based on the current and updatedairport master plan and related engineering drawings.
• Obtaining concurrence from agencies, airport stakeholders, and associatedorganizations with identified responsibilities for AEP implementation
• Presenting the AEP document to the appropriate executives for promulgation
• Distributing the AEP to all parties with duties and responsibilities under theplan. Records are kept on AEP distribution, which should be limited and on need-to-know basis.<br>

6. Verification of Conformity. The complete and endorsed AEP should always bechecked for conformity to the applicable laws, regulation(s), and standards andto ensure that it functions as planned. Verification and validation of the AEPare done through consultation with the stakeholders’ emergency managementofficials regarding its review cycle. As part of this process, full-scale exercisesare conducted to offer the best option to determine if an AEP actually worksand is understood.7. AEP Familiarization. On- and off-airport personnel familiarization with eachother’s equipment and facilities’ plans must be part of the plan. Off-airport personnel need to become familiar with the unique operating environment of anairport, and this is particularly critical during nighttime and low visibility. Manpower and staff assigned to support the AEP must get fully familiar with theirroles and responsibilities and sufficiently tested through drills and exercises.<br>

8. AEP Training Programs. The above is achieved through proper training. Personnel’s knowledge of the AEP, its facilities, equipment and vehicles, and the emergency response organizations’ (e.g., fire, medical, and police) knowledge of their responsibilities relative to the AEP, its facilities, equipment, and vehicles should follow rigorous training programs.
For initial training, airport personnel should be primarily devoted to standard operating procedures (SOPs), and general training should be provided to all airport employees.Emergency response personnel should receive specialized training based on their individual job responsibilities. Furthermore, periodic training should be scheduled in order to prevent loss of knowledge and skills over time. Training should familiarize the personnel with:
• Standard operating procedures
• The airport layout plan (ALP) and facilities’ plans and engineering drawingsof the current airport master plan.
• Communications, IT, and utilities’ systems and equipment, including cabling, circuit drawings, location of equipment, and routing of lines
• Emergency equipment
• Reporting systems<br>

9. Training Methods and Equipment. As part of the AEP, an emergency training handbook with formal methods for training personnel should be prepared.
Formal methods include, but are not limited to, classroom instruction, on-site familiarization, emergency training drills (for airport personnel, emergencyresponse personnel, and the public), audiovisual (AV) training programs, andsimulations (computer as well as live simulations).
The handbook should also include such training methods as orientation seminars, drills, tabletop exercises, functional exercise, and full-scale exercises as well as the steps taken to develop them.
These steps include needs assessment, definition of the scopeand statement of purpose, identification of the goals and objectives, buildingscenarios, problem statements, and assessment of the success of the exercise.<br>

10. Hazard Control during AEP Routine and Periodic Training. Because of the intense activity characteristic of most full-scale exercises, if not managed carefully, the exercise itself can cause accidents.
Potential hazards during mounting AEP exercises at normal airport operation may occur and should be avoided.
For operation-based exercises, since participants may be unfamiliar with aircraft operations, some could unintentionally interfere with the operation andaccidents may result.
The AEP should therefore include preventive actions and awareness measures.
Other preventive measures of the AEP are related to potential injuries during exercise, victim training instructions, liability issues, public awareness and notification of the exercise through media, and undertaking corrective actions.<br>

Airport Rescue and Firefighting<br>

Environmental Impacts of Airports Airports are unique entities that have profound economic, social, and environmental effects on a local, regional, and even national level.
They provide the means for the efficient movement of passengers and goods to virtually anywhere in the world, playing a vital role in the trend toward “globalization” and the interconnections between international trade and local economies.
While the economic benefits of airports and air travel are commonly recognized, there is a social and environmental cost associated with constructing and operating airports.<br>

Air Emissions / Quality The effects of airports and aircraft on air quality are complex and controversial—effects not only occur in areas immediately surrounding airports but also occur on a regional and global level.
Not only do emissions from airports and aircraft affect air quality in areas immediately surrounding airports, but aircraft exhaust is also emitted in the upper atmosphere during flight.<br>

Emission sources at airports typically include the following:
Aircraft emissions are a function of the number of annual aircraft operations, the aircraft fleet mix (types of aircraft and engines serving an airport), and the length of time aircraft spend in various modes of the landing and takeoff cycle. Six aircraft operating modes comprise a landing and takeoff (LTO) cycle: approach to the airport, landing roll on the runway, taxi in from the runway to the gate or apron, taxi out from the gate or apron to the runway, takeoff on the runway, and climbout from the airport.
• An auxiliary power unit (APU) is a small turbine engine that generates electricity and compressed air to operate aircraft instruments, lights, and ventilation when aircraft are parked at the gate, and the APU can also be used to provide power to start the main aircraft engines. Because jet fuel is used as the power source for APUs, they emit exhaust.<br>

• Ground support equipment such as tugs that haul baggage carts, fuel trucks, and catering trucks also create exhaust. Additionally, passengers, employees, hotel and rental car shuttles, parking shuttles, and suppliers all generate motor vehicle traffic on airport roadways and in parking lots that can be a significant source of pollutant emissions at an airport.
• Construction emission sources can include construction vehicles and equipment, land development activities, asphalt paving activities, asphalt batch plants, and painting activities.
• Stationary sources can include heating and cooling plants, emergency generators, and other industrial facilities located on airport property.
An assessment of air quality effects at an airport needs to consider all of these factors. The vast number and types of activities that can affect air quality make understanding and properly characterizing these effects a complex and challenging process.<br>

Environmental Impact of Aviation Industry<br>