Biosocial and Trait Theories of Crime - PowerPoint Presentation

Slide1

Biosocial and Trait Theories of Crime

Part IISlide2

The Impact of Cesare Lombroso

Lombroso’s perspective was the dominant theory in the early 1900s

Argued criminals were less evolved than noncriminals Throwbacks to our ancestors

However, this perspective and other biological theories were soon discredited and abandonedSlide3

Sociological Theories of Crime and Deviance

After biological theories were discredited, sociological theories began to dominate the field

Remain dominant today

Differences in the social environment explain crime

Family, school, peer group, community

Argue there are no individual differences between criminals and noncriminals Slide4

Reemergence of Individual-Level Theories

Criminologists have begun to criticize the exclusive

focus on social environments Focus on individual differences and the influence of these differences on the likelihood of crimeSlide5

Reemergence of Individual- Level Theories

Much more sophisticated than Lombroso in three ways:

Focus on a broader range of biological factorsGenetic inheritance and “biological harms”

Argue these traits do

not

directly lead to crime but contribute to crime

Rather, they affect the central and autonomous nervous systems

Recognize that the social environment influences whether or not the biological factors lead to the development of certain traits and whether or not these traits lead to crimeSlide6

The Importance of Examining Individual/Biological Factors

Two main reasons to examine biological factors:

Biological factors can interact with the social environment to produce crime

Influence

how

individuals respond to their environment

Individuals may respond to same environment differently

Individual traits may influence the social environment in ways that may increase the likelihood of crime

May evoke responses from others and/or seek out risky peers/situations

Failure to consider biological factors and individual traits may result in inaccurate estimates of the effect of social factors on crimeSlide7

Modern-Day Biological Theories – Biosocial

Due to the importance of both the social environment and biology, modern work on biology and crime are called biosocial

Biosocial theorists argue that sociological theories of crime would benefit from consideration of biological factors and individual traits For example, irritability and intelligence can influence the extent a person is exposed to strainSlide8

Modern-Day Biological Theories – Biosocial

At the most general level, modern-day biological theories argue:

Biological and environmental factors influence the development of traits conducive to crimeTraits conducive to crime influence the social environment in ways that increase the likelihood of crime

Crime is most likely among individuals who possess traits conducive to crime

and

are in aversive environments Slide9

Modern-Day Biological Theories – Biosocial

Glueck and Glueck examined the impact of biological, sociological, and social factors in the explanation of crimeSought to explain why people respond to different environments in different ways

Took a life-course approach examining how the causes of crime develop from childhood to adulthoodSlide10

Glueck and Glueck:

Unraveling Juvenile Delinquency

Glueck and Glueck examined a (1950) matched sample of 500 delinquent and 500 nondelinquent boysWhite males ages 10 to 17 matched on age, race, neighborhood characteristics, and intelligenceDelinquents from two juvenile reformatories in Massachusetts and nondelinquents from Boston public schools

The Glueck’s followed up with the boys at ages 25 and 32

Sutherland attacked this work, saying it was a theoretical and downplayed sociological factors

Sociologists rejected the work, saying it was flawed methodologically and portrayed offenders as biologically deficientSlide11

Glueck and Glueck:

Unraveling Juvenile Delinquency

Argued we needed a multidisciplinary study of crimeShould focus on a variety of factors that could cause crime, unlike sociologic researchSociological reasoning on the causes of crime assumes that the mass social stimulus to behavior is alone or is the primary significant causal force

This ignores two facts:

In every society, there are individuals who do not conform to the laws

Differences exist in the responses of various individuals or classes of persons to many of the elements in a culture-complex of a regionSlide12

Glueck and Glueck:

Unraveling Juvenile DelinquencyArgued that area-studies (e.g., social disorganization research) establish a region of economic and cultural disorganization that tend to have a criminogenic effect on people, but these studies fail to emphasize that this influence affects only a selected group of people and not all the residents in that area

Do not explain why the criminogenic influences of these areas fail to turn the majority of its boys into persistent delinquentsArgue the varieties of the physical, mental, and social history of different people must determine the way in which people are impacted by their social environment

Failure to examine these factors leads to an incomplete explanation of crimeSlide13

Glueck and Glueck:

Unraveling Juvenile DelinquencyArgued many theories of their time were focused on a single factor (e.g., poverty) and thus were not able to thoroughly explain crime

There is a need for a multifactor or eclectic approach to the study of crime causationExamined a variety of factors to see which ones were related to crimeSlide14

Glueck and Glueck:

Unraveling Juvenile DelinquencyFactors with probable causal significance

PhysiqueHigh incidence of mesomorphic (muscular, solid) dominance in delinquentsAmong nondelinquents, there is a high incidence of ectomorphic (linear, thin) dominanceDelinquents have been reported to have been restless as children as wellSlide15

Glueck and Glueck:

Unraveling Juvenile DelinquencyFactors with probable causal significance

Temperamental traits and emotional dynamicsDelinquents found to be more extroversive, more vivacious, more emotionally labile or impulsive, more destructive/sadistic, more aggressive, and more adventurous

Also delinquents found to be more hostile, defiant, resentful, destructive, and suspicious than nondelinquents

Delinquents are shown to be higher on social assertiveness, feelings of not being recognized/appreciated, narcissism, and are less conventional, cooperative, inclined to meet expectations of others, and submissive to authority

Delinquents are more stubborn and egocentric, less critical of themselves, less conscientious, and more likely to experience conflicts

Delinquents are more likely to handle conflicts through extroversionSlide16

Glueck and Glueck:

Unraveling Juvenile DelinquencyFactors with probable causal significance

Intellectual traitsThe boys were matched on intelligence, but differences were still seen

Delinquents are distinguished from nondelinquents in having a lesser capacity to approach problems methodically

Delinquents have less verbal intelligence

Delinquents tend to express themselves intellectually in a direct, immediate, and concrete manner rather than through the use of intermediate symbols or abstractions

Delinquents have greater emotional disharmony connected with their performance of intellectual tasksSlide17

Glueck and Glueck:

Unraveling Juvenile DelinquencyBehavior reflecting significant traits

School attainmentMay reflect temperamental and intellectual differences or variations in early environment and training

School accomplishment of delinquents was definitely inferior to that of the control group

Delinquents had a poorer attitude toward school

Markedly disliked school and few expressed a desire to continue their schooling

Less interested in academic tasks, less attentive, more often tardy, less reliable, more careless with their work, lazier, more restless, less truthful, and sought attentionSlide18

Glueck and Glueck:

Unraveling Juvenile DelinquencyBehavior reflecting significant traits

School misbehaviorDelinquents misbehave at a much higher rate than nondelinquentsAverage age at first school misbehavior was 9½ (fourth grade)That is 3 years younger than nondelinquents who misbehaved in school

Engage in truancy, disobedience, disorderliness, stubbornness, impudence, quarrelsome, cruelty, and the destruction of school property Slide19

Glueck and Glueck:

Unraveling Juvenile DelinquencyBehavior reflecting significant traits

General misbehavior tendenciesOutside of school, delinquents stole rides, hopped on trucks, committed destructive mischief, set fires, and would sneak into theaters without paying, run away from home, bunk out, keep late hours, gamble, beg, and smoke and drink at an early age more than nondelinquents

Leisure time and companions

Delinquents spent more time away from home

More likely to play in distant neighborhoods, hang around street corners, vacant lots, waterfronts, railroad yards, and poolrooms

Engaged in fewer supervised activities

Gravitated to more adventurous activities

Preferred to associate with delinquent peers

One half of them were in gangsSlide20

Glueck and Glueck:

Unraveling Juvenile DelinquencyBehavior reflecting significant traits

Socio-cultural factorsModern culture is highly complex and ill-defined because of conflicting valuesMust learn to be adaptive, have self-control and self-management, learn to choose among alternative values and to postpone immediate satisfactions for future ones

Basic desires of adolescents similar and imperative

Striving for happiness and for expression of a desire for freedom from restraint, thirst for new experiences, need for security, affectional warmth from others, and a desire to achieve successSlide21

Glueck and Glueck:

Unraveling Juvenile DelinquencyBehavior reflecting significant traits

Socio-cultural factorsHome conditions of youth can facilitate or hamper the process of internalization of authority, the taming and sublimation of primitive impulses, and the definitions of standards of what is good and bad

The biosocial legacy of the parents of delinquents was consistently poorer than that of the nondelinquents

Greater incidence of emotional disturbances, mental retardation, alcoholism, and criminalism among the families of the mothers of delinquents

Also see more emotional disturbance and criminalism among the families of the fathers of the delinquentsSlide22

Glueck and Glueck:

Unraveling Juvenile DelinquencyBehavior reflecting significant traits

Socio-cultural factorsHigher proportion of delinquents’ parents suffered from serious physical ailments and were mentally retarded, emotionally disturbed, alcoholic

Many had a history of delinquency

Many had poorer hygienic and moral climates

A higher proportion of delinquents’ parents had no more than a grade-school education, unhappy marriages, and broken homes

Many delinquents had “substitute” parents and shifted from house to house

Delinquents’ parents had a more scattered work history and less planful management of moneySlide23

Glueck and Glueck:

Unraveling Juvenile DelinquencyBehavior reflecting significant traits

Socio-cultural factorsParents of delinquents were extremely harsh and lax in their disciplineOften neglectfulDelinquents’ families were more disorganized, lacked warmth and respect toward their members, were more hostile, and had less attachment among their members

Thus, the delinquent boys were never adequately socialized and developed persistent antisocial tendencies Slide24

Glueck and Glueck:

Unraveling Juvenile DelinquencyOverall, found delinquency results from the interplay between somatic (physique—mesomorphic), temperamental (restless and aggressive), attitudinal (hostile and defiant), psychological (less methodical), intellectual, and sociocultural (especially family) forces

Assigns special importance to biological and psychological factors while discounting the importance of social factorsArgue that social factors are important but do not have a causal effect

Rather, these factors are another reflection of individual traits and early family problems that cause delinquencySlide25

Glueck and Glueck:

Unraveling Juvenile DelinquencyThe Glueck’s work showed the importance of highlighting the differences between delinquents and nondelinquents

This research had three important contributions:Embraced a multifactor approach where the causes of crime were driven by the data

Showed early antisocial behavior was related to later criminal behavior and thus criminal involvement was a dynamic developmental process

Need to examine childhood and theories that are incomplete

Criminological theory should become largely a branch of developmental criminology

Showed antisocial youths not only are shaped by their circumstances but also impact the social worldSlide26

Genetic Influences on Crime

Attempt to measure the extent that crime is inherited by using:

Twin studiesCompare identical (MZ) to fraternal (DZ) twinsMZ twins are 100% genetically similar; DZ twins are 50% genetically similar

Adoption studies

Focus on children separated from family

early in life

Molecular genetic studies

Genes may be related to traits conducive

to crime (e.g., hyperactivity, impulsivity)Slide27

Genetic Influences on Crime

Existing research shows that there is evidence for some genetic basis for crime

Twenty percent of adopted children with criminal biological parents were criminal compared to only 13.5 percent of adoptees with noncriminal biological and noncriminal adoptive parentsCrime most likely when both biological and adoptive parents were criminal

However, genetic factors may be most relevant to life-course-persistent offenders and less relevant to

adolescence-limited offendersSlide28

Ellis and Walsh: “Gene-Based Evolutionary Theories in Criminology”

Genes have an effect on traits conducive to crime and

under some conditions individuals with these traits might reproduce at high ratesGenes promoting traits of pushiness and

deception (cheating)

may reproduce at high rates passing on these genes

Role of

kin selectionSlide29

Ellis and Walsh: “Gene-Based Evolutionary Theories in Criminology”

Focus only on victimful

offenses (e.g., property and violent crimes)Only examines genetic influences, not genetic determinismSlide30

Ellis and Walsh: “Gene-Based Evolutionary Theories in Criminology”

The ability to learn and the disposition to learn some things more readily than others has a genetic predisposition

People vary in their ease with which they learn some behavior These theories come out of the work of Charles Darwin and Gregor MendelSlide31

Ellis and Walsh: “Gene-Based Evolutionary Theories in Criminology”

Application of gene-based evolutionary theories to criminal behavior

Assume people are altruistic toward close genetic relatives and those willing to reciprocateAssumes a significant minority of people are genetically prone to be extremely deceptive and prone to take advantage of othersSlide32

Ellis and Walsh: “Gene-Based Evolutionary Theories in Criminology”

Five specific gene-based evolutionary theories discussed

Can be divided into two types:Those focused on specific crimes (e.g., rape, spousal assault, child abuse)

Those that can be applied generally to

criminal and antisocial behaviorSlide33

Ellis and Walsh: “Gene-Based Evolutionary Theories in Criminology”

(Rape and Sexual Assault)

Assert sexual aggression is naturally selected to be exhibited predominately by the sex that invests the least in offspringMost often males Due to being free of parenting responsibilities, have more to gain by having multiple sex partners

Gain these partners by:

Genes promoting

pushiness

(and sometimes force)

Thus this gene gets passed on because

higher reproductive ratesSlide34

Ellis and Walsh: “Gene-Based Evolutionary Theories in Criminology”

(Rape and Sexual Assault)

Six hypotheses:Males should predominate in the commission of rape and sexual assault

Men gain more from becoming pushy about sex than women

Males, in fact, do commit more sexual assaults/rapes than women

Sexual assaults should not be exclusively a human phenomenon; males of other species should have evolved similar genetically promoted tendencies

See rape in various nonhuman species with

males almost exclusively the offenderSlide35

Ellis and Walsh: “Gene-Based Evolutionary Theories in Criminology”

(Rape and Sexual Assault)

Rape should be strongly resisted by female victims because it denies them the opportunity to choose sex partners who are most likely to help care for offspring

Females are more cautious in choosing partners than males and interested in traits of loyalty and commitment

Victims of sexual assault should primarily be females of reproductive ageSlide36

Ellis and Walsh: “Gene-Based Evolutionary Theories in Criminology”

(Rape and Sexual Assault)

In some societies, males who engage in forced copulations may not only reproduce relatively well, they could even out-reproduce males who only mate with voluntary sex partnersRapists have more active sex lives

Penalties for rape will be severe to prevent genes conducive to rape from overtaking a population

Decision to act out is subject to environmental influences

Many would-be rapists are deterred

Wartime rapeSlide37

Ellis and Walsh: “Gene-Based Evolutionary Theories in Criminology”

(Spousal and Romantic Triangle Assault)

Six hypotheses: Males should be the main offenders in cases of spousal assaults and romantic triangle assaults

Males are far more abusive toward spouses/girlfriends

Jealousy and suspicion of infidelity should be a key cause of spousal and dating assaults

Males more likely to be the abuser

Cuckoldry

Used to maintain mate’s fidelity Slide38

Ellis and Walsh: “Gene-Based Evolutionary Theories in Criminology”

(Spousal and Romantic Triangle Assault)

“Spousal assaults” should not be an exclusively human phenomenon Males from at least four other primate species have been shown to attack females who show interest in other males or are not sexually receptive

Spousal assault should be highest in human populations that have fewer stable marriages, greater promiscuous sexual intercourse, and more children who do not receive the family name of the father

No scientific evidence for thisSlide39

Ellis and Walsh: “Gene-Based Evolutionary Theories in Criminology”

(Spousal and Romantic Triangle Assault)

Spousal assault may prevent infidelity and/or pregnancy resulting from infidelity Victims may be frightened, and so they avoid activities that provoke assaults (

trauma-induced bonding and dependency

)

Leads to severe emotional distress that could disrupt reproductive functioning

Women who become pregnant as a result of sexual infidelity may be subjected to such severe badgering by the men with whom they live with that their pregnancy may be aborted

No evidence among married women Slide40

Ellis and Walsh: “Gene-Based Evolutionary Theories in Criminology”

(Child Abuse and Neglect)

Four hypotheses:Parents who have more children than they have resources needed to rear them should abuse and even abandon their children more than parents who have sufficient resources

Find higher rates of abuse in larger and poorer families

A parent who lacks the assistance of the other parent in caring for the offspring should be more prone to child abuse, neglect, and abandonment

Abuse unusually common among never married, separated, or divorced familiesSlide41

Ellis and Walsh: “Gene-Based Evolutionary Theories in Criminology”

(Child Abuse and Neglect)

Children who are less viable from a reproductive standpoint are likely to experience more abuse and neglect from parentsChildren with serious physical and mental handicaps typically receive less care and more abuse

Children will be subjected to more abuse/neglect when no close genetic relationship exists between the parent and the guardian

Research has supported this Slide42

Ellis and Walsh: “Gene-Based Evolutionary Theories in Criminology”

(Cad v. Dad)

Females prefer men who are willing to help them care for offspringSome men (cads) have evolved with genes that incline them toward an extremely low parental investment reproductive strategyTo be favored in mating, these men must be deceptive/stealthy

Criminals will be deceptive, irresponsible, and opportunistic in almost everything they do

Use devious techniques for acquiring resources

quickly and for gaining sexual access through

almost any means that workSlide43

Ellis and Walsh: “Gene-Based Evolutionary Theories in Criminology”

(Cad v. Dad)

Five hypotheses: Criminality and psychopathy should be more prevalent among men than among women

Support for this found in all societies studied and, especially, with severe and persistent offending

Criminals and psychopaths should be unusually promiscuous

Several studies have shown criminality and psychopathy are associated with an early onset of promiscuous sexual behaviorSlide44

Ellis and Walsh: “Gene-Based Evolutionary Theories in Criminology”

(Cad v. Dad)

Criminals and psychopaths should be more inclined to commit sexual assaults than males in generalEvidence is generally supportive of thisRapists are generally not specialists but rather exhibit all of the other major criminal and antisocial behavioral traits

The cad strategy should be more pronounced among males in the prime of their reproductive careers than in later life

Ontogenetic shift

Burnout later in lifeSlide45

Ellis and Walsh: “Gene-Based Evolutionary Theories in Criminology”

(Cad v. Dad)

The cheater strategy should be more prevalent in the lower than the upper social strataTwo subpopulations of males have formed:

Those who can provide

More attractive to females

Those who cannot provide

More inclined to mate opportunistically

and be a cadSlide46

Ellis and Walsh: “Gene-Based Evolutionary Theories in Criminology”

(r/K Theory)

r/K continuum

R

Mating

K

Parenting

Organisms reproduce rapidly and prolifically whenever environmental opportunities allow

Do not invest much time/resources in their offspring

Begin reproducing at earlier age

Often have numerous offspring

Organisms reproduce slowly and cautiously even when environmental opportunities allow

Invest a great deal of time/resources in their offspringSlide47

Ellis and Walsh: “Gene-Based Evolutionary Theories in Criminology”

(r/K Theory)

Four hypotheses:Criminality and psychopathy should be more prevalent among men than among women

Persons with the greatest tendencies toward criminal/antisocial behaviors should exhibit at least most of the psychological traits associated with an

r

strategy

Low birth weight, premature birth, frequent twinningSlide48

Ellis and Walsh: “Gene-Based Evolutionary Theories in Criminology”

(r/K Theory)

Parents of criminals and psychopaths should begin having children earlier in life and should have larger numbers of children in generalEvidence for this exists

Biological parents of criminals and psychopaths should themselves be criminal and psychopathic

Evidence for this is substantial Slide49

Modern Day Gene-Based Evolutionary Theories

Ultimate causes

Natural selection forces that have favored genes for various combinations of traits, both physical and behavioralProximate causesPertain to detailed physiological events that mediate genetic effects on behaviorTestosterone, MAOs, serotonin, alcoholism Slide50

Modern Day Gene-Based Evolutionary Theories

Overall, these modern day gene-based theories are much more advanced than Lombroso’s theories

Criminal behavior seen as being an adaptation to life in a large impersonal society

However, learning still important

But it is highly influenced by genesSlide51

“Biological Harms” and Crime

Crime is also affected by nongenetic biological factors

Mother’s poor health habits during pregnancyDelivery complicationsExposure to toxic substances (e.g., lead)Head injury Slide52

Central and Autonomic Nervous System and Crime

Central: controls brain and spinal cord

Autonomic: heart rate, gland secretion, emotional reaction to stimuli

Frontal lobe damage can lead to:

Hyperactivity, impulsivity, irritability, reduced ability to

learn from punishment, lower empathy, difficulty problem solving

Criminals show less emotional response to stimuli

Psychologically drowsy

Lower skin conductance, lower resting heart rate, slower alpha brain waves Slide53

Central and Autonomic Nervous System and Crime (Rowe)

Genetic factors and biological harms affect individual traits through their impact on the central nervous system (CNS) and autonomic nervous system (ANS)Slide54

Peskin et al.: “Biology and Crime”

Show the following major conclusions concerning biology and crime

Genetic factors and biological harms affect individual traits through their impact on the structure and functioning of the brain and the autonomic nervous systemGenetic studies show considerable heritability estimates for criminal behavior, and molecular genetics research focuses on identifying candidate genes for antisocial behavior Functional and structural neuroimaging studies found deficits in frontal, temporal, and subcortical brain regions in criminal and antisocial populations

Neuropsychological research has shown criminals have deficits in verbal, spatial, and executive abilities Slide55

Peskin et al.: “Biology and Crime”

Show the following major conclusions concerning biology and crime

Psychophysiological research has uncovered predictors of later criminal behavior in autonomic underarousal and hyporesponsivityHormonal research suggests and imbalance between hormones involved in the fear/stress response and in the reward-seeking/dominant behavior may contribute to phenotypic traits seen in antisocial peopleSerotonin has been implicated in aggressive behavior

Early health risk factors (e.g., prenatal nicotine/alcohol exposure, birth complications, minor physical anomalies) increase the risk of antisocial and criminal behavior throughout life Slide56

Peskin et al.: “Biology and Crime”

Argue there are six domains of neurobiological research showing a relationship between biological risk factors and crime

GeneticsNeuroimagingNeuropsychologyPsychophysiology Endocrinology and neurotransmitters

Early health risk factors Slide57

Peskin et al.: “Biology and Crime”

GeneticsUsing twin studies, adoptive studies, studies of twins reared apart, and molecular genetic studies, heritability estimates in the 40–60% range have been found for antisocial behavior

Sample age moderates this estimate with lower heritability and higher shared environmental influences on antisocial behavior in childhood than adulthoodGenetic influences on criminality tend to rise with age while shared environmental effects decline with ageAntisocial behavior beginning early in life and persists in more heritable than antisocial behavior restricted to childhoodSlide58

Peskin et al.: “Biology and Crime”

GeneticsType of offending moderates the genetic effect

Aggressive offending is more heritable than nonaggressive behaviorNonaggressive behavior more influenced by shared environmental factors (e.g., family criminality, family poverty, poor parenting)Multiple genes are involved in the vulnerability for crime and the interaction of genes and the environment is important in the etiology of criminal behaviorSlide59

Peskin et al.: “Biology and Crime”

NeuroimagingFronto-temporal gray matter volume reductions associated with antisocial behavior

Reduced hippocampal and parahippocampal gray volumes in schizophrenic murderers compared to nonviolent schizophrenics and healthy controlsDisrupted amygdala-orbitofrontal connections in psychopaths with convictionsProposed the amygdala, with its importance in fear conditioning, and the hippocampus, with its importance in emotional memory, temporal lobe damage may predispose to a lack of fear for punishment and result in the disruption of normal moral development Slide60

Peskin et al.: “Biology and Crime”

Criminals have also been shown to have reduced glucose metabolism, reduced blood flow, reduced activation in prefrontal, orbitofrontal, temporal, and parietal cortices

Criminals show increased brain activity to threat stimuli and disturbances in the dopamine reward systemImpairment to frontal, temporal, and subcortical may lead to difficulties in moral socialization, behavioral inhibition, emotion regulation, and fear conditioning Slide61

Peskin et al.: “Biology and Crime”

Neuropsychology

IntelligenceAntisocial behavior and low IQ have been found to have a common genetic basisDecreased verbal IQ, compared to performance IQ, has been found to be associated with criminal behavior, especially in adolescence One explanation is that lower verbal IQ could result in underachievement in school which results in antisocial behavior

Another explanation could be that antisocial behavior in school leads to school refusal and gaps in education and produces low verbal IQ

Further, low verbal IQ could lead to socialization failureSlide62

Peskin et al.: “Biology and Crime”

NeuropsychologyExecutive functioning

Includes cognitive processes such as mental flexibility, strategy formation, selective attention, and suppression of habitual responsesControlled by the prefrontal cortexAntisocial populations have impaired scores on executive functioning Found across all age groups, with males and females, and with violent offendingSlide63

Peskin et al.: “Biology and Crime”

Psychophysiology Includes skin conductance, heart rate, electroencephalography, and event-related potentials

Reduced classical fear conditioning is related to criminal behavior – may result in a lack of conscience Poor skin conductance is associated with antisocial behavior High autonomic arousal associated with desistance Slide64

Peskin et al.: “Biology and Crime”

Psychophysiology Low resting heart rate associated with child and adolescent antisocial behavior; high resting heart rate is associated with desistence

Greater heart reactivity is seen in conduct disordered childrenArousal levels are consistently lower in criminals than noncriminalsLow heart rates, low skin conductance, and low arousal do generate somatic markers associated with antisocial behaviorSlide65

Peskin et al.: “Biology and Crime”

Psychophysiology More slow-wave EEG (underarousal) in frontal and temporal regions and atypical frontal asymmetry of brain is associated with antisocial behavior

Impairs inhibitory control, predisposes to sensation seeking, abnormal emotional reactions and affective stylesP300 deficits associated with inefficient cognitive processes, drug abuse, child conduct disorder, ADHDSlide66

Peskin et al.: “Biology and Crime”

Hormones and NeurotransmittersHormonal imbalances

Cortisol is the body’s stress hormoneLow levels associated with antisocial children and adolescents and violent and psychopathic adultsTestosteroneAssociated with aggressive behavior in adultsMay help explain gender differences in criminal behavior

Also linked with social dominanceSlide67

Peskin et al.: “Biology and Crime”

Hormones and NeurotransmittersNeurotransmitter dysfunction

Reduced serotonin levels are related to aggressive behavior, especially crimes that harm others such as arson and homicideSlide68

Peskin et al.: “Biology and Crime”

Early Health RisksSmoking during pregnancy

Predicts conduct disorder, delinquency, and adult criminal and violent offendingDose-response relationshipAlcohol use during pregnancyAssociated with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)Prenatal exposure associated overrepresentation in juvenile justice systemSlide69

Peskin et al.: “Biology and Crime”

Early Health RisksBirth complications

Includes premature birth, low birth weight, placement in NICU, forceps delivery, C-section, anoxia, preeclampsiaBelieved to directly and indirectly impact brain developmentOften interact with psychosocial factors predicting antisocial behavior, conduct disorder, delinquency, and impulsive crime and violenceSlide70

Peskin et al.: “Biology and Crime”

Early Health RisksMinor physical anomalies (MPAs)

Biomarker for fetal neural maldevelopment during first and second trimestersCurved fifth finger, furrowed tongue, single palmer crease, low-seated earsAssociation between MPAs and delinquency and violent behavior in children and adultsInteract with social factors in predisposing to violent and criminal behavior

Being raised in a stable, intact family moderated the relationship between MPAs and violent crime with MPAs predicting violent crime for those in unstable homesSlide71

Environmental Influences on Traits

Traits are also influenced by the social environment

Socialization efforts of parentsAdversity of environmentBiological harms may be a function of the social environment

More likely to be exposed to toxins, poor prenatal care, poverty, and abuse

Dysfunctions in the CNS and ANS can make children more difficult to parent

Combination of biological factors and poor social environment make criminal behavior more likely than having one aloneSlide72

Individual Traits and Crime

Traits: relatively stable ways of perceiving, thinking about, and behaving toward the environment and oneself

Several traits are associated with criminal behaviorLow verbal IQ, ADHD, impulsivity, irritability, low empathy, poor social and problem-solving skillsPeople with the above traits:

Are more likely to elicit negative responses from others

Sort themselves into negative environments

Respond to mild slights with aggressionSlide73

Individual Traits and Crime

Often many traits cluster together

Some researchers identify “super-traits” that may be associated with criminal behaviorPsychopathy Low self-controlVerbal IQ

Temperament Slide74

Caspi et al.: “Personality and Crime: Are Some People Crime Prone?”

Personality has three super-traits

Negative emotionalityLikely to experience events as aversive, experience intense reactions such as anger and to respond to events with aggression

Constraint

If low, likely to be impulsive

If high, likely to endorse conventional norms, avoid thrills, and act cautious

Positive emotionality

Likely to have a lower threshold for experience of positive emotions and for positive engagement with their social and work environments

More likely to view life as a pleasurable experience

Measured with MPQ or CCQSlide75

Caspi et al.: “Personality and Crime: Are Some People Crime Prone?”

Studied:

People in New Zealand 18-year-old males and females from an entire birth cohort

12- and 13-year-old black and white males from the U.S. Slide76

Caspi et al.: “Personality and Crime: Are Some People Crime Prone?”

Negative emotionality and constraint were robust correlates of delinquent behavior

Positive emotionality was not related to criminal behaviorResults held among individuals who engaged in serious (repeat) criminal behaviorResults held across males and females, whites and blacks, and cross-nationally Slide77

Caspi et al.: “Personality and Crime: Are Some People Crime Prone?”

Origins of negative emotionality and constraint

Family environmentHarsh, inconsistent punishmentConstant threat of physical and emotional harmParental conflict

Neurobiological underpinnings

Serotonin

Genetics Slide78

Interactive Effect of Biological Factors, Traits, and the Social Environment on Crime

“Dual hazard” prediction

Crime is most likely when individuals who are biologically predisposed to crime are in environments conducive to crimeTraits can influence how people respond to the environment or how the environment responds to the individual Crime is influenced by cognitive and temperamental traits which are a function of both genetic and social environmental factors

Worst outcome occurs when both traits and environment are criminogenicSlide79

Summary

Modern-day individual trait theories are much more advanced than the work of Lombroso

It is important to examine the interaction of both individual traits and the social environment when explaining the development and maintenance of antisocial behavior