Impulsivity and the Self-Defeating Behavior of NarcissistsSimine Vazir - PDF document

Impulsivity and the Self-Defeating Behavior of NarcissistsSimine VazireDepartment of PsychologyThe University of Texas at AustinDavid C. FunderDepartment of PsychologyUniversity of California, RiversideCurrentlyprominentmodelsofnarcissism(e.g.,Morf&Rhodewalt,2001)primarilyexplainnarcissists’self-defeatingbehaviorsintermsofconsciouscognitiveandaffectiveprocesses.Weproposethatthedispositionofimpulsivitymayalsoplayanimpor Throughoutthepaper,weusethetermnarcissismtorefertoPortionsofthisresearchweresupportedbyNationalInstituteofMentalHealthGrantR01–MH52391toJamesPennebaker.DatagatheringfortheRiversideAccuracyProjectwassupportedbyNa MorfandRhodewalt(2001)addressedintheircognitive–affectiveprocessingmodel.Astheyandothersargue(e.g.,Westen,1990),muchofnarcissists’cognitive,affective,andbehavioralresponsesareintheserviceofdefendingandaffirminganunrealisticHowdonarcissistsgoaboutthedifficulttaskofmaintainingaself-conceptthatisbothoverlypositiveandhighlyfragile?Notverysuccessfully.Theresearchliteratureshowsthatnarcissistsengageinbehaviorssuchasbragging,derogatingothers,reactingtoegothreatswithhostilityandaggression,makinginternalattributionsforsuccessandexternalattributionsforfailure,andoverestimatingfutureoutcomesandperformanceeveninthefaceofdisconfirmingfeedback.Clearlythesearenotbehaviorswell-chosentoearntherespectandesteemofothers.Indeed,researchhasshownthatnarcissistsaredislikedbytheirpeers(aftermakingafleetingpositivefirstimpression;Paulhus,1998),arepsychologicallymaladjusted(Colvin,Block,&Funder,1995),andbecomeincreasinglyunhappyanddisengagedfromacademicsoverthecourseofcollege(Robins&Beer,2001).Inshort,“astheyyearnandreachforself-affirmation,[narcissists]de-stroytheveryrelationshipsonwhichtheyaredepend-ent” (Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001, p. 179).Cognitive–affectiveprocessingmodels(e.g.,Morf&Rhodewalt,2001)maintainthatnarcissistsengageinineffectiveorevencounterproductiveinterpersonalstrategiesbecausetheyareinsensitivetoothers’con-cerns.Inotherwords,althoughtheirbehaviorseemsself-defeatingtotheoutsideobserver,itisactuallyadeliberate,thoughill-conceived,strategythatmakessensefromthepointofviewoftheirinternalsubjectivelogic.Weproposeamoreparsimoniousexplanationforatleastsomeoftheseself-defeatingbehaviors:Thebehaviorsarenotstrategicatall,narcissistssimplycan’t help themselves.Weproposethatnarcissistssufferfromadispositionallackofself-control(i.e.,impulsivity,aconceptcloselyakintoegoundercontrol;Block,2002;Block&Block,1980),andthiscontributestotheirinabilitytomeetthehighself-regulatorydemandsofaninflated,unstableself-concept.Asaresult,theyareunabletosuccessfullynegotiatetheirsocialenvironmentstoobtaintherecognitiontheycrave.Aswepointoutinourreinterpretationofthenarcissismliterature,manyofnarcissists’behaviorsmayprovidetemporaryimmediategratificationoftheirdesireforrecognition,butitcomesatthecostoflong-termsuccess—theclassicframeworkoftheconceptofdelayofgratification(e.g.,Funder,Block&Block,1983;Mischel&Ayduk,Insupportofourproposal,wepresenttheresultsfromameta-analysisofthepublishedcorrelationsbetweennarcissismandimpulsivityalongwithunpublishedresultsfromtwolargedatasetsexaminingtherelationshipbetweennarcissismandimpulsivity.Then,wereviewtheliteratureonnarcissismandarguethatmuchofnarcissists’behaviorcanbereinterpretedandunderstoodintermsofpatternsofbehaviorcharacteristicofimpulsivepeople.Specifically,wereinterprettheliteraturewithrespecttothreeself-defeatingbehaviorsthatarewell-establishedhallmarksofnarcissism:self-enhancement,aggression,andnegativeEvidence for our ProposalIntheearlydaysofempiricalresearchonnarcissism,impulsivityappearedfrequentlyamonglonglistsofassociatedtraits.Inoneofthemostcitedearlyarticles,RaskinandTerry(1988)describednarcissistsas“relativelydominant,extraverted,exhibitionistic,aggressive,impulsive,self-centered,subjectivelyself-satisfied,self-indulgent,andnonconforming”(p.899).Severalofthesecharacteristicshavebeenstudiedextensively(e.g.,aggression,Bushman&Baumeister,1998;self-centeredness,Robins&John,1997),butimpulsivityseemstohavelargelyescapedsubsequentAnexceptioncanbefoundintheliteratureonclini-calnarcissism(NarcissisticPersonalityDisorder;NPD).AlthoughNPDandsubclinicalnarcissismhavebeentraditionallytreatedasseparatelinesofresearch,theclinicalliteratureprovidesastrongbasisforsus-pectingacentralroleforimpulsivityinsubclinicalnar-cissism.HollanderandRosen(2000)arguedthatimpulsivityisanimportantcomponentofmanydisorders,includingNPD,andthatacompleteunderstandingandsuccessfultreatmentofnarcissisminparticularrequiresanunderstandingoftheroleofimpulsivity.Similarly,CasillasandClark(2002)foundthatthecorrelationbetweenNPDandimpulsivitywas.35(.01)whenimpulsivitywasmeasuredwiththeScheduleforNonadaptiveandAdaptivePersonality(SNAP;Clark,1993),and.41(.01)whenmeasuredwiththeBarrattImpulsivityScale(BIS;Patton,Stanford,&Barratt,1995).Furthermore,CasillasandClarkfoundthat“InthecaseofnarcissisticPD,itsentirerelationshipwithsubstanceabusewas[statistically]explainedby [impulsivity and self-harm]” (p. 434).Althoughlittleornoresearchhasfocuseddirectlyontheroleofimpulsivityinsubclinicalnarcissism,manyoftheearlyconstruct-validationstudiesofnarcissismscalesreportedcorrelationswithlargebatteriesofothermeasures,includingmeasuresofimpulsivity.Thesecorrelationswerenevertheprimaryconcernandoftenwerenotevenmentionedinthetextofthearticles.Thevalidationstudiesusuallyreportedallcorrelationsbetweennarcissismandtheotherconstructsassessed,regardlessofdirectionorsize.Thus,theNARCISSISM AND IMPULSIVITY relationshipbetweennarcissismandimpulsivityreportedinthisliteratureisunlikelytobeabiasedestimate(i.e.,thereislesslikelytobea“file-drawer”problemofnonsignificantordisconfirmingfindingsthathave remained unpublished).Ourmeta-analysisbeganwithameticulousthree-stepsearch.Becausewewereinterestedincastingabroadnetandobtainingempiricalarticlesonnarcissism,wesearchedthePsycINFOdatabase.WelimitedoursearchtojournalarticlesandbookchapterspublishedinEnglishsince1979,whenaconsistentdefinitionofsubclinicalnarcissismbegantoemerge.Inthefirststepofthesearch,wesearchedforpaperswith“narciss*”(e.g.,“narcissism”or“narcissistic”),“NPI”,or“self-enhancement”inthetitle.Toexcludepapersonclinicalpopulationsorreferringtoclinicalnarcissism,weexcludedpaperswiththewords“psychoanal*”(e.g.,“psychoanalytic”or“psychoanalysis”)and“disorder”inthedefaultsearchfields(i.e.,title,abstract,keyphrase,subjects,tableofcontents,andauthor).Thisyielded347articlesand35Inthesecondstepofthesearch,wesoughttoidentifythosepapersreportingacorrelationbetweennar-cissismandsomemeasureofimpulsivity.Todothis,wesearchedthe382papersforanyofthefollowingwordsorphrases,usingthe“AllText”fieldtosearchforimpuls*(e.g.,“impulsivity,”“impulsiveness,”“im-pulse-control,”etc.),self-control,ego-control,con-straint,abilitytodelaygratification,andpatienceorimpatience.However,becausewesuspectedthatthesecorrelationswouldoftenbeperipheraltothemainsub-jectofthepapers,wealsoskimmedtheabstractsfromall382papersobtainedinthefirststepofthesearchandretainedthosethatincludedinstrumentsthatcouldbeusedtomeasureimpulsivity(e.g.,theCAQ;Block,1961).Fromthe382papers,weretained81thatcouldpotentiallyreportcorrelationsbetweenimpulsivityandInthethirdstepofthesearchprocess,wecarefullyexaminedall81ofthesepapersandretainedthosewithaneffectsizeestimatefortherelationshipbetweennarcissismandimpulsivity.Thisyieldedeightarticlescontaining17effectsizeestimates,whichareshowninTable1alongwithsamplessizesandsignificancelevels.Themeasuresofnarcissismandimpulsivitycamefromself-reports,observerratings,informantratings,andclinicianratings.Someofthenarcissismmeasures,suchasthosebasedontheCAQ(e.g.,Wink,1992)containedsomecontentoverlapwiththeimpulsivitymeasures,butmost,suchastheNarcissisticPersonalityInventory(NPI;Raskin&Terry,1988)Table1alsoincludessixpreviouslyunpublishedcorrelationsbetweennarcissismandimpulsivityfromtwolargedatasets.Thesedatasetsincludeacombinationofself-reports,reportsfromwell-acquaintedinformants,andratingsbyclinicians.Inthefirstdataset(Vazire&Mehl,2004),narcissismscoreswereobtainedfromparticipants’NPIscores(aggregatedacrosstwoassessments)andfromtheaggregateofthreeinformantratingsoftheparticipantsona4-itemmeasure(Kurt&Paulhus,2004).Bothmeasuresofnarcissismhadadequatereliabilities(NPI:test–retest=.89;informant-ratednarcissism:ICC[1,]=.73).ImpulsivityratingswereobtainedfromtwofacetsoftheNEOPersonalityInventory–Revised(NEOPI–R;Costa&McCrae,1992)bothaggregatedacrosstwoassessments:impulsivity,afacetofneuroticism,anddeliberation(reversed),afacetofconscientiousness.ThesetwofacetswerecombinedintoasinglereliableIntheseconddataset(TheRiversideAccuracyProject,PhaseII;Funder,2004),narcissismwasalsoassessedusingtheNPI;ICC(2,)=.83.Impulsivityscoreswereobtainedfromfoursources.Thefirstwasparticipants’self-reportsonBlock’segoundercontrolscale(UC;Letzring,Block,&Funder,inpress);ICC)=.77.TheUCscaleassessesindividualdifferencesinego-control(Block&Block,1980).Highscorers(undercontrolledindividuals)are“unabletodelaygratification,havefluctuatingemotions,andarespontaneous,easilydistracted,andrelativelyunboundbysocialnorms”(Letzringetal.,inpress).Impulsivityscoreswerealsoderivedfromself-reportsontheCAQ(Block,1961).ParticipantsratedthemselvesonitemsoftheCAQusinga9-pointLikert-typeratingmethod(foradescription,seeLetrzingetal.,inpress),andtheirprofileswerethencorrelatedwiththeexistingCAQprototypeforegoundercontrol.Thiscorrelation(adjustedusingFisher’sformula)wasthenusedasanindexofself-ratedimpulsivity.Asathirdindexofimpulsivity,oneofseveralcliniciansalsoratedeachoftheparticipantsontheCAQusingtheQ-sortmethod.Theclinicianhadconducted1-hourlonglifehistoryinterviewwiththeparticipant.Insomecases,theratingofasecondclinicianwhohadviewedavideooftheinterviewwasalsoavailable.Inthosecases,thetwoclinicians’CAQratingswereaggregated;otherwise,thesingleCAQratingwasused.TheaggregatewascorrelatedwiththeCAQegoundercontrolprototypeandthesetransformedcorrelationsservedasourthirdindexofimpulsivity.Finally,eachparticipantwasalsoratedontheCAQbyoneortwoacquaintanceswhoservedasinformants.TheinformantCAQratingswereaggregatedandtheaggregatewascorrelatedwiththeCAQegoundercontrolprototype.Thistransformedcorrelation served as our fourth index of impulsivity. Dataanalysesofthislarge,newdatasetareintheearlystage.OnepublicationhasreportedcorrelatesofBlock’smeasuresofego-resiliencyandegocontrol(Letzringetal.,inpress).Theseanalyses do not overlap with others, completed or planned. Table 1. Correlations Between Narcissism and ImpulsivityStudyMeasure of NarcissismMeasure of ImpulsivityEmmons (1984)NPI16PF “self-control” (reversed)651–.03Raskin and Terry (1988)NPIACL “self-control” (reversed)572.63**NPICPI “self-control” (reversed)572.36**NPIObserver rating: ACL “patient”(reversed)572.55**Raskin and Novacek (1989)NPIMMPI ego-control (reversed)572.43**1933.40**Wink and Gough (1990)CPI narcissismCPI self-control (reversed)3504.67**MMPI narcissismCPI self-control (reversed)3504.60**Wink (1991)MMPI narcissism (Factor 2:CPI self-control (reversed)3504.52**MMPI narcissism (Factor 2:Spouse rating: ACL “impulsive”1524.22**Wink (1992)CAQ Narcissism prototype(“Willfulness” subscale)CPI self-control (reversed)1025.30**3504.34**CAQ Narcissism prototype(“Willfulness” subscale)Spouse rating: ACL “impulsive”1524.28*CAQ Narcissism prototype(“Willfulness” subscale)Spouse rating: ACL “impatient”1524.26*Discrepancy between positivity(on CAQ)Peer rating: CAQ item 53: “unableto delay gratification”306.40**32.35**Wink and Donahue (1997)MMPI NarcissismBPS constraint subscale(reversed)1068.35*Vazire and Mehl (2004)NPINEO PI-R self-report (N5 &C6-reversed)809.27*Informant ratingsNEO PI-R self-report (N5 &C6-reversed)789.29*RAP II (Funder, 2004)NPIEgo-undercontrol scale score19610.32**NPIEgo-undercontrol prototype match(CAQ; self-report)19810.39**NPIEgo-undercontrol prototype match(CAQ; clinicians’ratings)19510.35**NPIEgo-undercontrol prototype match(CAQ; informants’ratings)19010–.01Weighted mean of all 23effect sizes3549.41**Weighted mean of effects Note.Allmeasuresareself-reportsunlessotherwiseindicated.RAPII=RiversideAccuracyProject,PhaseII,NPI=NarcissisticPersonalityInventory(Raskin&Hall,1979;1981),MMPI=MinnesotaMultiphasicPersonalityInventory,CPI=CaliforniaPersonalityInventory(Gough,1957;1987),ACL=AdjectiveChecklist(Gough&Heilbrun,1983),CAQ=CaliforniaAdultQ-set(Block,1961),BPS=BoredomPronenessScale(Farmer&Sundberg,1986),NEOPI–R=NEOPersonalityInventory–Revised(Costa&McCrae,1992);N5=ImpulsivityfacetofNEOPI–R; C6 = Deliberation facet of NEO PI–R.The23effectsizesreportedinthistablecomefrom10independentsamples.WehavenumberedthesamplestoindicatewhicheffectsizescomeWink (1991) characterized the first MMPI narcissism factor as covert narcissism and the second as overt narcissism.Results were reported for two separate samples.Results reported separately for men (top correlation) and women (bottom correlation).TheconstraintsubscaleoftheBPSmeasures:“feelingsofimpulsivityandrestlessnessinresponsetoexternalconstraintsonbehavior”(Wink&fortheweightedmeanreflectsthenumberofuniqueparticipantsrepresentedinthistable(i.e.,participantsrepresentedinmorethanone Astheresultsofourmeta-analysisdemonstrate(Table1),thereisstrongevidenceforarelationshipbetweenimpulsivityandnarcissism.Narcissistsaredescribedasimpulsive,impatient,unabletodelaygratification,andlackinginself-controlbythemselves,theirspouses,theirpeers,andunacquaintedobservers.Allbut2ofthe23correlations(91%)weresignificantandinthepredicteddirection.TheconsistencyinourfindingsisparticularlyimpressiveconsideringthebreadthofnarcissismandimpulsivitymeasuresToobtainanestimatedeffectsizebasedonthesecorrelations,wefollowedtheproceduresformeta-analysisrecommendedbyRosenthal(1995).Beforeaveragingthecorrelations,wetransformedthemusingFisher’sformula.However,alloftheeffectsizeestimateswereporthavebeentransformedbackintocorrelations.Themeanofall23correlationsbetweennarcissismandimpulsivitywas.37,themedianwas.35,andtheweightedmean(weightedbyn–3)was.41.The95%confidenceintervalofthisestimaterangesfrom.38to.44,indicatingthattheeffectsizeestimate is significantly different from zero.However,aswenoteinTable1,thesearenotallin-dependenteffectsizes.The23effectsizesaredrawnfromonly10independentsamples.Thus,wealsocom-putedthemeaneffectsizesofthe10independentsam-plesandconductedameta-analysisoftheseeffects.AsshowninthelastrowofTable1,theweightedmeanofthissetofeffectsizesis.34.The95%confidenceinter-valforthisestimaterangesfrom.28to.40,onceagainindicatingthattheeffectsizeestimateissignificantlydifferent from zero.Todeterminewhethertheeffectsizesfromthe10independentsamplesarelikelytobeestimatingthesamepopulationmean,wecomputedtheheterogeneity.Thevalueforwasslightlyabovewhatwouldbeexpectedbychance,(9)=17.6,p.05.Thissuggeststhatthevarianceintheestimatesexceedswhatwouldbeexpectedbasedonsamplingerror.Afollow-upanalysisshowsthatthisheterogeneityisduemostlytoasingleoutlier:ofthe10independenteffectsizes,allrangefrom.25to.50exceptforone(Emmons,1984;–.03).Whenthiseffectsizeisremovedfromthemeta-analysis,theheterogeneitydropsto nonsignificant levels,ThisclearpatternofresultssupportsRaskinandTerry’s(1988)suggestionthatimpulsivityisoneofthedefiningcharacteristicsofnarcissism.Indeed,inWinkandGough’s(1990)study,bothmeasuresofnarcissismcorrelatedmorestronglywithCPIself-control(s=–.60,–.67,s.01)thanwithanyoftheother19CPIsubscales,andinRaskinandTerry’sstudynarcissismcorrelatedmorestronglywiththeACLitem“patient”(=–.55,.01)thanwithanyofthe299otherACLitemsexceptfor“submissive”(=–.57,.01).Basedontheconsistentevidenceintheclinical,social,andpersonalityliteratures,andonourownanalysesoftwomulti-methoddatasets,itisclearthatarelationshipexistsbetweennarcissismandimpulsivity.Despitetheirpenchantforself-enhancement,narcissistsconsistentlyratethemselvesasimpulsive,andthey are also seen by others as impulsive.Havingprovidedevidencethatnarcissistsareindeedimpulsive,weturntoourcentralpoint:thatthisrelationshiphelpsexplaintheirself-defeatingbehavior.Inourreview,weshallcompareourdispositionalexplanationtoMorfandRhodewalt’s(2001)cognitive–affectiveprocessingmodel.Ourgoalisnottorefutetheexistingmodelofnarcissism,buttoshowthatadispositionalexplanationisinsomerespectsmoreparA Review and Reinterpretation ofNarcissists’Self-Defeating BehaviorMostresearcherswhohaveexaminedthebehavioralresponsesofnarcissistshaveexplainednarcissists’behaviorintermsofthoughtsandintentions.Forexample,Baumeister,Bushman,andCampbell(2000)wrote:“Anotherquestioniswhatexactlynarcissisticpeoplehopetoaccomplishbyrespondingviolentlytoaninsult”(p.29).Questionslikethisimplicitlyassumethatnarcissists’behaviorisdrivenbytheircognitiveappraisals,andeventhatitmaybeentirelywithintheirconsciousunderstandingandvolitionalcontrol.Incontrast,adispositionalperspectivesuggeststhatnar-cissistsreactaggressivelytoaninsultbecausetheyareimpulsive;thereisnointernalsubjectivelogictotheirbehavior,theyaresimplyovercomebyimpulsesthattheyfailtocontain.Inthissectionwebeginbyprovidingasummaryofthebehavioralandbiologicalcorrelatesofimpulsivitytosetthefoundationforexaminingtheparallelsbetweennarcissismandimpulsivity.Then,weexamineandreinterpretnarcissists’self-defeatingpatternsinthreedomainswhichhavereceivedthemostattentionfromresearchers:self-enhancement,aggression,andnegativelong-termA Portrait of ImpulsivityTounderstandhowimpulsivitycanexplainnarcissists’self-defeatingbehavior,wemustfirstunderstandthenatureofimpulsivity.Whatdoimpulsivepeopledo?Howstrongistheeffectofimpulsivityonbehavior?Inthissectionweprovideabriefsummaryofthebiological,behavioral,andlifeoutcomecorrelatesofimpulsivity.Wewilldrawonthesepatternswhenreinterpreting narcissists’self-defeating behavior.Asmentionedearlier,theconstructofimpulsivitygoesbymanynames,includingdisinhibition (Gorenstein&Newman,1980),self-control(reversed;Gough,1956),ego-control(reversed;Block&Block,1980),anddeliberation(afacetofconscientiousness,reversed;Costa&McCrae;1992).Itisalsocloselyrelated,conceptuallyandempirically,tootherconstructssuchastheinabilitytodelaygratification(Funder,Block,&Block,1983;Wulfert,Block,Ana,Rodriguez,&Colsman,2002),thebehaviorinhibitionandactivationsystems(BIS/BAS;Carver&White,1994),sensation-seeking(Zuckerman,1993),psychoticism(Eysenck,1997),andconscientiousness(reversed;Self-reportsofimpulsivityhavebeenvalidatedagainstinformantratings(e.g.,teachers’andparents’ratings),cognitivetests(e.g.,Strooptest),andbehavioralmeasures(e.g.,impatienceandrestlessness;White,Moffitt,Caspi,Bartusch,&Stouthamer-Loeber,1994).Impulsivityhasalsobeenshowntohavestrongbiologicalunderpinnings(Eysenck,1993;Spinella,2004;Zuckerman,2003).Forexample,impulsivityislinkedwithdecreasedlevelsofserotonin(Harrison,Everitt,&Robbins,1999)andspecificpatternsofactivityintheprefrontalcortex(Spinella,2004),andhasbeenshowntobesubstantiallyheritableThebehavioralandlife-outcomecorrelatesofimpulsivityarewelldocumented.Relativetononimpulsivepeople,impulsivepeopletendtobemoredelinquent(Krueger,Caspi,Moffitt,White,&Slouthamer-Loeber,1996;Whiteetal.,1994.),engageinmoreriskysexualbehavior(Kahn,Kaplowitz,Goodman,&Emans,2002)anddrivingbehavior(Bogg&Roberts,2004),engageinmoresubstanceabuse(Bogg&Roberts;Wulfertetal.,2002),havepooreracademicperformance(Merrell&Tymms,2001),bemoreaggressive(Kruegeretal.;Tangney,Baumeister,&Boone,2004),bemoreviolent(Bogg&Roberts),chooseshort-termoverlong-termrewards(Funder,Block,&Block,1983),beunabletocopewithstressordistress(Tangneyetal.),andcommitmore crimes (Wulfert et al., 2002).Inshort,impulsivityisastabledispositionwithclearbiologicalunderpinningsandimportantandmeaningfulbehavioraloutcomes,andisconsideredabasicdimensionoftemperament(Clark,inpress).Thisprovidesmorereasontobelievethatitmayplayanimportantexplanatoryroleinnarcissists’self-defeatingbehaviors.Review of the Narcissism LiteratureInthissectionwereviewthemajorwell-establishedfindingsonnarcissists’self-defeatingbehaviorandevaluatehowwellnarcissists’impulsivitycanexplaineach.Wehaveidentifiedthreeglobalareasofresearchonnarcissism:self-enhancement,aggression,andlong-termcosts.Foreachoftheseareasofresearch,wesummarizethefindingsintheliteratureandthenexaminewhethernarcissists’dispositionalimpulsivitycanprovide a parsimonious explanation.Narcissism and self-enhancement.Itiswellestablishedthatnarcissists’self-perceptionsareoverlypositive,almostbydefinition.Moreover,narcissists’self-deceptionhasaveryparticularpattern.AsPaulhusandJohn(1998)convincinglyargued,narcissistsengageprimarilyinegoisticself-deceptiveenhancement.Thatis,theyseethemselvesassuperioronagentic,“superhero-like”traitssuchasintelligence,dominance,andemotionalstability.Incontrasttheyarenotlikelytoseethemselvesasespeciallymoral,agreeable,Thispatternofself-enhancementiscorroboratedinmanyresearchfindings.Narcissismisassociatedwithself-enhancementonagentictraits(Campbell,Rudich,&Sedikides,2002),specificallyintelligenceandabilitymeasures(Campbelletal.,2002;Farwell&Wohlwend-Lloyd,1998;Gabriel,Critelli,&Ee,1994;Paulhus,Harms,Bruce,&Lvsy,2003;Paulhus&Williams,2002)andattractiveness(Gabrieletal.,1994).However,narcissistsdonotself-enhanceoncommunaltraits(Campbelletal.,2002)anddonotscorehigheronsocial-desirabilitymeasures(Raskin,Novacek,&Hogan,1991a).Inaddition,narcissistsoverestimatetheircontributiontogrouptasks(John&Robins,1994),havepositivelydistortedaccountsoftheirbe-havior(Gosling,John,Craik,&Robins,1998)andoftheirromantichistories(Rhodewalt&Eddings,2002),andaremorelikelythannon-narcissiststomakeinter-nalattributionsforsuccessandexternalattributionsforfailure(Campbell,Reeder,Sedikides,&Elliot,2000;Kernis & Sun, 1994; Rhodewalt & Morf, 1998).Thereisalsoevidencethatnarcissists’self-delusionsaredeeplyheld.Narcissistsmaintaintheiroverlypositiveviewseveninthefaceofcontradictoryfeedback(Robins&John,1997),andholdontotheirself-enhancingattributionsforsuccessandfailureevenwhendoingsocomesattheexpenseoftheirpartner’ssuccessinacooperativetask(Campbell,Reeder,Sedikides,&Elliot,2000).Inaddition,narcissistscontinuetoself-enhanceevenwhentheyknowthattheywillbeheldaccountablefortheirexaggerations.Forexample,onestudy(Paulhusetal.,2003)foundthatnarcissistscontinuedtoover-claim(claimingtoknowaboutnonexistentitems)morethannon-narcissists,evenwhentheyknewthatsomeoftheitemstheywereaskedaboutwerenonexistent.Inshort,narcissistscontinuallyoverestimatetheirabilities,positivelydistorttheirpastbehaviors,andholdoverlypositiveviewsoftheirpersonalities,particularlyonagentictraits.Moreover,theycontinuetodosoevenWhydonarcissistsexhibitsuchinappropriatebehavior?MorfandRhodewalt’smodel(2001)emphaNARCISSISM AND IMPULSIVITY sizestheroleoffaultythinkingpatterns.Forexample,theyproposethatnarcissistsseekrecognitionfromothersforaffectivereasons(i.e.,to“allayagnawingconcernofinadequacy,”p.179)andforcognitivereasons(i.e.,tocomplete“self-definitionalneeds,”p.179).However,severallinesofresearchsuggestthatself-enhancementislinkedtodispositionalimpulsivity.First,Paulhusandhiscolleagues(Paulhus,Graf,&VanSelst,1989;Paulhus&Levitt,1987)haveshownthatself-enhancementincreaseswhenpeoplearedistractedbyattentiontasksoraffectivestimuli.Participantsinthesestudiescompletedself-ratingswhileperforminganothertask(monitoringdigitsonthecomputerscreen)orbeingpresentedwithanaffectivedistractorword.Bothmanipulationsdecreasedparticipants’self-regulatoryresourcesandledtoanincreaseinthepositivityoftheirself-views.PaulhusandLevittsuggestedthatpeoplehavean“automaticegotism”;atendencytoself-enhancethatcanonlybeoverriddenbyeffortfulprocesses.Thisexperimentalmanipulationshedslightonthepotentialroleofdispositionalimpulsivityinexplainingnarcissists’persistentself-enhancement.Ifoverlypositiveself-viewsarecommonandautomatic,andself-controlisnecessarytocurbpeople’stendenciestoself-enhance,thennar-cissists’dispositionallackofself-controlislikelytoaccountfortheirexcessiveandunconstrainedAsimilarlineofresearchonself-regulationhasfoundthatdepletingpeople’sself-regulatoryresourcesinducesthemtorespondmorenarcissistically.Spe-cifically,Vohs,Baumeister,andCiarocco(2005)ex-aminedtheeffectsofself-regulatorydepletiononNPIscores.Theirfindingsshowthatpeoplewhoseself-regulatoryresourcesweredepletedweremorelikelytoendorseNPIitems.Furthermore,self-regulatorydepletionwasassociatedwithdecreasesinsociallydesirableresponding,suggestingthatdepletionisspecificallylinkedtonarcissisticself-presentation,notgeneralpositiveself-presentation.Moreover,theincreaseinnarcissismfollowingdepletionwasmediatedbythedecreaseinsociallydesirableresponding,suggestingthatdepletionledtomorehonestself-presentation,whichledtotheleakingoutofpeople’snarcissisticself-views.Thisstudyprovidesfurtherevidencethatnarcissistsself-enhancebecauseoftheirimpulsivity.Liketheparticipantsinthedepletioncondition,narcissistsdonothavetheself-regulatoryresourcesnecessarytocurbtheirinappropriatelyarrogantself-views.However,inthecaseofnarcissists,theirself-regulatorydepletionisachronic,dispositionalconditionratherthanaresultofNarcissismandaggression.Anotherwell-estabpatternofself-defeatingbehaviorinnarcissistsistheiraggressiveness,particularlyinresponsetoegothreats.Narcissistshavebeenfoundtorespondwithanger,hostility,andaggressiontobogusnegativeintelligencefeedback(Smalley&Stake,1996;Stucke&Sporer,2002),socialrejectioninthelaboratoryaswellasrecallofactualsocialrejection(Twenge&Campbell,2003),andbeinginsultedinalaboratorytask(Bushman&Baumeister,1998).EvidenceintheclinicalliteraturealsosuggeststhatNPDisassociatedwithreal-world aggression (e.g., Warren et al., 2002).Furthermore,somepreliminaryevidencesuggeststhatnarcissistsaremorelikelytoendorseaggressionevenintheabsenceofanegothreat.Specifically,malenarcissistsaremorelikelythannon-narcissiststoendorserape-supportivestatements,enjoywatchingafilmdepictingconsensualaffectionateactivityfollowedbyrape,andpunishafemaleconfederateforrefusingtoreadasexuallyarousingpassagealoudtothem(Bushman,Bonacci,vanDijk,&Baumeister,2003).Narcissistsalsoscorehigheronself-reportmeasuresofhostility(Rhodewalt&Morf,1995).Intheirreviewoftheliteratureonself-esteemandaggression,Baumeister,Smart,andBoden(1996)concludethatunrealisticallyhigh,vulnerableself-esteem(i.e.,nar-cissism)isacontributingfactortoaggressioninmanydomains,includingself-reportedhostility,murderandassault,rape,domesticviolence,juveniledelinquency,political violence, and even genocide.Whatmakesnarcissistsaggressive?Thecogni-tive-processesexplanationofnarcissists’aggressionisbasedonafundamentalassumptionthattheremustbesomeinternalsubjectivelogictotheaggressivebehav-iorofnarcissists(e.g.,Baumeisteretal.,2000).How-ever,astrongargumentcanalsobemadeforadispositionalinfluence.Knowingthatnarcissistsareimpulsive,thatimpulsivityislinkedtoaggression,andthatimpulsivityisabiologically-basedtemperamentthatexertsstronginfluencesonbehavior,itisreasonabletosupposethatnarcissists’aggressionisdueinparttotheirimpulsivetemperament.Furthermore,StuckeandSporer(2002)foundthatemotionalreactionsdidnotmediatetherelationshipbetweennarcissismandaggression,suggestingthataffectiveappraisalsdonotaccountfornarcissists’aggression.Wesuspect,however,thatbothimpulsivityandcognitiveandaffectiveappraisalsplayanimportantroleinnarcissists’aggression.Narcissismandnegativelong-termoutcomes.Athirdpatterncharacteristicofnarcissistsisthattheyengageinbehaviorsthatprovideshort-termbenefitsbutleadtonegativelong-termoutcomes.Thisistrueinthedomainsofinterpersonalrelationships,adjustment,and achievement.Intheinterpersonaldomain,narcissiststendtomakepositivefirstimpressionsbutbecomedislikedonceothersgettoknowthem.Paulhus(1998)exam inedthequalityofnarcissistsandnon-narcissists’interpersonalrelationsinnewly-formedgroupsovera7-weekperiod.Narcissismwasoperationalizedintwoways:asthediscrepancybetweenself-ratingsandfriends’ratingsofpersonality,andasmeasuredbytheNPI.Bothmeasuresofnarcissismrevealedthesamepattern:narcissistswereperceivedasagreeable,well-adjusted,andcompetentuponfirstmeetingtheirgroupmembers,buttheirreputationsdeterioratedovertimeandbyWeek7theywereperceivednegatively.Theseresultssuggestthatthesamebehaviorsthatelicitimmediatepositivereactionsfromothersleadnarcissiststosuffernegativelong-termconsequencesinthePaulhus(1998)alsofoundthatnarcissismwasassociatedwithhigherself-esteem.Asheandothershavepointedout,however,suchself-reportsmaybeaffectedbyself-enhancement,andothermeasuresofadjustmentwouldprovideabettertestoftherelationshipbetweennarcissismandpsychologicaladjustment.Colvinandcolleagues(1995)providedamorerigoroustestofthelong-termconsequencesofnarcissismonpsychologicaladjustmentbyexaminingtherela-tionshipbetweenself-enhancementandclinician-ratedadjustment,eachmeasured5yearsapart.Theirfind-ingsshowthatself-enhancementwasassociatedwithpoorerpsychologicaladjustment5yearsbeforeand5years after self-enhancement was measured.Otherevidencesuggeststhatnarcissisticself-enhancementprovidesshort-termboostsinwell-being.RobinsandBeer(2001)foundthatnarcis-sistsweremorelikelytomakeself-servingattributionsafteragrouptask,andthatthesepositiveillusionswereassociatedwithgreaterpositiveaffectafterthetask.Thisfindingsuggeststhatthesamebehaviorsthatareassociatedwithlong-termpsychologicalmaladjustmentarealsoassociatedwithshort-termboostsinFinally,thispatterncanalsobefoundintheacademicdomain.RobinsandBeer(2001)alsofoundthatnarcissistsholdunrealisticallyhighexpectationsoftheirownachievement,leadingtopositiveshort-termoutcomesbutnegativelong-termconsequences.Specifically,thosewhosepredictionsabouttheircollegeGPAwereunrealisticallyhighwereespeciallylikelytoexperiencepositiveaffect,highego-involvement,andself-servingattributionsatthetimethepredictionsweremade.However,whentheself-enhancerswereassessedagainovertheir4yearsofcollege,theyexhibiteddeclininglevelsofself-esteem,well-being,andengagementintheacademicdomainrelativetoInsummary,narcissistsengageinbehaviorsthatprovideimmediategratificationoftheirdesiresforsocialstatus,positiveaffect,andego-involvementinachievementdomains,buttheydosoatthecostoffulfillingthesedesiresinthelong-term.Inonestudy,HelgesonandFritz(1999)foundthatunmitigatedagency(overlypositiveself-viewsonagentictraits,i.e.,narcissism)wasassociatedwithself-reportsofnegativeinteractionswithfriendsandfamily,hostility,anxiety,negativewell-being,andnegativehealthbehaviors.Thisreflectsthehavocthatnarcissismcanwreakonthequalityofone’sinterpersonalrelationsand psychological and physical health.Whydonarcissistssacrificethelong-termfulfillmentoftheirgoalsinfavorofimmediategratification?Themostparsimoniousexplanationwouldseemtobethatnarcissists’impulsivitypreventsthemfromdelayinggratificationevenwhenitisbeneficialtodoso(andcostlynotto).Indeed,theinabilitytodelaygratifica-tionisoneofthedefiningcharacteristicsofimpulsivity,andislinkedtomanynegativeoutcomes(Cooper,Wood,Orcutt,&Albino,2003;Kruegeretal.,1996;Whiteetal.,1994).Onceagain,expandingMorfandRhodewalt’s(2001)modeltoincludedispositionalimpulsivityasapredictorofnarcissists’behaviorap-pears to improve its explanatory power.Summary.Table2presentsasummaryofthethreemainareasofresearchwehavereviewedhere,andtheparallelsbetweennarcissismandimpulsivityinthosethreeareas.Wehavefocusedontheself-defeatingbehavioralpatternsofnarcissiststhathavereceivedthemostattentionintheliterature.Surelymanyotherstudiesofnarcissistsdonotfallintothesethreecategories,buttheserepresentthemostcommonlystudiedandwell-establishedbehavioralNarcissists’characteristicpatternsofself-enhancing,aggressive,andshort-sightedbehaviorareallconsistentwithourproposalthatnarcissists’impulsivityNARCISSISM AND IMPULSIVITYTable 2. Behavioral Parallels Between Narcissism and Impulsivity.BehaviorNarcissismImpulsivitySelf-enhancementNarcissists self-enhance even whenSelf-regulatory depletion leads toself-enhancement (“automatic egotism”).AggressionNarcissists react aggressively (particularly toego-threat).Impulsivity is linked to aggression.Negative long-term outcomes/immediate gratificationNarcissism has short-term benefits butadjustment, and achievement domains.Impulsivity is linked to the inability to delaygratification accountsinpartfortheirbehavior.Specifically,eachofthesethreepatternsofbehaviorisalsotypicalofpeoplehighinimpulsivity.Giventhestrongempiricalrelationshipbetweennarcissismandimpulsivity(Table1),themostparsimoniousexplanationforthesebehaviorsisthattheyareinfluenced,inpart,bynarcissists’impulsivity.Basedontheevidencewehaveprovidedhere,wesuggestthatMorfandRhodewalt’s(2001)modelofnarcissismshouldbeexpandedtoincludedispositionalimpulsivityasapredictorofnarcissists’behaviors.Clearlythepredictorsthatarealreadyinthemodel,suchasgoals,appraisals,andself-concepts,alsoplayanimportantrole,butthemodelisincompletewithoutdispositionalvariables,andspecificallyimpulsivity.Thelinkbetweennarcissismandimpulsivityshouldalsobetakenintoaccountwheninterpretingother(i.e.,nonbehavioral)researchonnarcissism.Forexample,thereisagreatdealofresearchonthedistinctionbetweennarcissismandhighself-esteem(e.g.,Jordanetal.,2003;Rhodewalt,Madrian,&Cheney,1998;Smalley&Stake,1996).Thisresearchhasidentifiedseveralimportantwaysinwhichnarcissismdiffersfromhighself-esteem.Impulsivity,whichispositivelycorrelatedwithnarcissism(Table1)butnotself-esteem(=–.19,n.s.;Vazire&Mehl,2004),maybeanotherpieceofthepuzzle.Thatis,researchersmaybeabletouseimpulsivityasatoolindistinguishingbe-Insummary,wehavepresentedevidenceforourproposalintwosteps.First,ourmeta-analysisdemon-stratedanempiricallinkbetweennarcissismandimpulsivity.Second,wedemonstratedhowthreeim-portantbehavioralpatternsofnarcissistscanbeexplainedintermsofnarcissists’impulsivity.Takentogether,thesepiecesofevidencesuggestthatimpulsivityprovidesaparsimoniousexplanationformanyofthebehavioral(andpotentiallysomeofthenonbehavioral) correlates of narcissism.Future directions.Ourmeta-analysisandreviewoftheliteratureprovideastrongargumentforincorporatingimpulsivityintoourunderstandingofnarcissism.However,newandimprovedtechniquesforassessingimpulsivityandself-controlhaveemergedbecausemanyofthestudiesinourmeta-analysiswereconducted.Thus,ourfirstrecommendationforfutureresearchisthatstudiesexaminingnarcissismshouldincludemultiplewell-validatedmeasuresofimpulsivity.Forexample,researcherscouldobtainself-andinformant-reportsontheegoundercontrolscale(Letzringetal.,inpress)andadministerlaboratory-basedtestsofself-control(seeVohsetal.,2005,forexamples).Thiswillallowfurthertestsofourhypothesis,andwillalsoallowresearcherstoexaminewhetherimpulsivityaccountsforsomeofthedifferencesbetweennarcissistsandnonnarcissistsintheirResearchersinterestedinnarcissismshouldalsopayspecialattentiontotherolethatimpulsivityplaysinthephenomenatheystudy.Forexample,researchinterestedinthenarcissism–aggressionlinkshouldbesuretoincludemeasuresofimpulsivityandexaminewhetherimpulsivitymediatesthelinkbetweennarcisTherearealsoseveralunresolvedquestionsaboutthenatureoftherelationshipbetweenimpulsivityandnarcissismwhichshouldbeaddressedinfutureresearch.First,doesnarcissists’impulsivityresultfromanexcessofdesires(e.g.,unusuallyhighneedforpower)orfromashortageofrestraints(e.g.,lowself-regulatoryresources)?Futureresearchcouldaddressthisbyadministeringscalesthatdifferentiatebetweenapproachandinhibitionsystems(e.g.,theBIS/BASscales;Carver&White,1994),andexaminingAnotherquestiontobeaddressedinfutureresearchiswhethertherelationshipbetweenimpulsivityandnarcissismisuniversal.Ifitisthecasethat“automaticegotism”isauniversaltendency,wewouldexpectthisrelationshiptobetrueacrosscultures.However,ifthereareculturaldifferencesintheautomaticityandprevalenceofself-enhancementmotives,itislikelythatimpulsivitywouldnotbeassociatedwithnarcis-sisminallcultures.Thatis,impulsivityshouldbeasso-ciatedwithwhatevermotiveisstrongestinagivencon-text.Futureresearchshouldexaminetherelationshipbetweenimpulsivityandnarcissismacrosscultures,andcontinuetoexamineculturaldifferencesinself-enhancementmotives(e.g.,Heine,Takata,&Lehman, 2000; Kobayashi & Brown, 2003).Finally,thedirectionalrelationshipbetweenimpulsivityandnarcissisticbehaviorshouldbeexaminedingreaterdetail.Thecorrelationaldatapresentedherecannotaddresswhetherimpulsivitycausesnarcissists’self-defeatingbehavior.Althoughsomeexperimentalresearchhasshownthatdepletingself-regulatoryresourcesleadstonarcissisticbehavior(Vohsetal.,2005),furtherexperimentationisneededWereturnnowtotheoriginalquestionthatmotivatesmuchoftheresearchonnarcissism:Whydonarcissistsengageinbehaviorsthatunderminetheirurgentgoalsofpowerandrecognition?Wehavearguedherethatsometimestheanswermaybeverysimple:Becausetheycan’thelpit.Theparadoxicalbehaviorofnarcissists,suchastheirlimitlessself-enhancement,counterproductiveaggression,andpreferencefor short-termimmediategratificationoverlong-termbenefitsmaybedriveninpartbytheirdispositionalimpulsivity.Althoughimpulsivityhaslongbeenrecognizedasacorrelateofnarcissism,ithasbeenoverlookedasanimportantinfluenceonandexplanationfornarcissists’behavior.Ourmeta-analysisandreviewoftheliteraturesuggeststhatimpulsivityshouldbeincludedinmodelsofnarcissism,andthatresearchersshouldconsiderimpulsivityasapossibleexplanatoryvariablewheninterpretingnarcissists’self-defeatingbehaviors.ReferencesReferencesmarkedwithanasteriskindicatestudiesincludedinBaumeister,R.F.,Bushman,B.J.,&Campbell,W.K.(2000).Narcissism,self-esteem,andaggression:Doesviolenceresultfromlowself-esteemorfromthreatenedegotism?CurrentDirections in Psychological Science, 9,Baumeister,R.F.,Smart,L.,&Boden,J.M.(1996).Relationofthreatenedegotismtoviolenceandaggression:ThedarksideofPsychological Review, 103Block,J.(1961).TheQ-Sortmethodinpersonalityassessmentandpsychiatricresearch.PaloAlto,CA:ConsultingPsychologistsBlock,J.(2002).Personalityasanaffect-processingsystemMahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.Block,J.H.,&Block,J.(1980).Theroleofego-controlandego-resiliencyintheorganizationofbehavior.InW.A.CollinsTheMinnesotaSymposiumonChildPsychology:Vol.13.Developmentofcognition,affect,andsocialrelations39–101). 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