Martin Kozloff 2014 Outline 1 Maximize time for teaching 2 Use productive grouping in differentiated instruction 3 Prepare student for new material being taught Make sure they are firm on the preskill ID: 546893
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Slide1
Assessing and Improving Instruction
Martin
Kozloff
2014Slide2
Outline
1
. Maximize
time for teaching.
2. Use productive grouping in differentiated instruction.
3. Prepare student for new material being taught. Make sure they are firm on the pre-skill
elements
and/or background knowledge.
4. Prepare students for the start of each lesson and for the start of each new task in the lesson.
5. Design instruction on the basis of
objectives
: the performance (what students will do) and performance standards (how they will do it).
6. Prepare the lesson for delivery. Slide3
7. Lessons are a sequence of knowledge-rich tasks. Each task in a lesson has a clear instructional function.
8. Use the proper format for teaching each form of knowledge: facts, concepts, rule-relationships, routines.
9. Adequately teach and assess all phases of mastery: acquisition of new knowledge (initial instruction) fluency (accurate and quick), generalization (application to new examples), integration of elements into larger wholes, retention.
10. Organize lessons around this format. Seven-point lesson plan.Slide4
11. Plan ways to scaffold instruction ; i.e., various kinds of assistance to help teachers communicate information, and to help students acquire, organize, retrieve, and apply information/knowledge.
12. Begin instruction on a new lesson with review, especially of knowledge elements and background knowledge relevant to the current instruction (pre-skills).
13. Next in a lesson, frame the main business of the lesson by stating the kind of new knowledge to be taught, the objectives (final performance and standards), and big ideas.
14. Next in a lesson, model or present new information clearly and focus on the objectives. Slide5
15. If students are not likely to learn from the model alone, lead students through the application of the new information just modeled.
16. Use pre-corrections, or reminders, to prevent errors when it is students’ turn to respond.
17. After the model (and if used, the lead), give an immediate acquisition test/check to determine whether students learned the new information.
18. Correct all errors and/or firm weak knowledge after the lead and/or test/check.
Slide6
19
. If new material is a concept (e.g., mitosis), rule-relationship (e.g., how price varies with demand), or cognitive routine (e.g., a math algorithm), make sure to: (a) use a wide and varied range of examples; (b) juxtapose examples to reveal sameness; (c) juxtapose examples and
nonexamples
to reveal difference; (d) when teaching routines (sequences of steps), use a sequence of formats, from more to less teacher-modeled.
20. Give a
delayed acquisition test/check
to determine whether students learned the concept, rule relationship, or cognitive routine from
the set of the examples and
nonexamples
.
21. Teach at a brisk pace, with enthusiasm.
22. End the lesson by
reviewing the lesson
(e.g., main things taught) and state how what was taught is relevant to next lessons.
Use
frequent (every 5 to 10 lessons) curriculum-based progress monitoring assessments
.
Now
let’s look at each item in more detail.Slide7
Curriculum
1. A
curriculum
is all of the
information
, skills, or knowledge that students are to learn, and the
sequence
in which they are to learn it.
Scope and sequence charts
show
what
is taught and
when
.Slide8
Scope and Sequence (What and When) Chart for a
Beginning Reading Curriculum
Lessons 1
100
Hear sounds in words (phonemic awareness)
|
--------------|
Sounds that go with letters (letter-sound correspondence: alphabetic principle)
|-------------------------------------------------------|
Decoding (sounding out unfamiliar words: alphabetic principle)
|-----------------------------------------------------------|
Fluency (reading letters, words, sentences, paragraphs fast and accurately)
|-------------------------------------------------------------|
Vocabulary
|-------------------------------------------------------------|
Text Comprehension
|----------------------------------------------------------|Slide9
The sequence should be meaningful (make sense) and coherent (knowledge elements hang together
).
How to do this.
Organize the content (what is taught) and sequence around Big Ideas. For example:
a. A theory of social change, for a course on history.
The
age of pioneers
the age of conquest
the age of
commerce
the age of affluence
the age of intellect
the
age of
decadence (Sir John
Glubb
. The fate of
empires.)
b. The concept of system, for a course on science.
Slide10
c. The
idea that poetry reflects and is shaped by the social
setting of the poet.
d. The idea
that some groups want a strong government and
other groups want a weak government
2
.
Organize content in a logical progression. For example:
a. Time line.
b. Story.
c. Deductive: General idea followed by supporting facts.
d. Inductive: Facts that reveal or from which students can
induce (figure out) the general idea.Slide11
e. And in all curricula, teach knowledge elements before you teach larger routines that USE the knowledge elements.
Knowledge analysis
tells you what these elements are.
(1) Sound out ram. What does student do/have to know?
(2) Translate second paragraph of Declaration of
Independence into a list of rule statements. What does
student have to know?Slide12
Curriculum
Lessons
/ 1……….10……………….35…………………..50…………………………90
days
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4
Lesson
Task 1. Review and firm. Sequence of sentences.
Task 2 New: facts, concepts, rules, routines.
Task 3 More
Task 4 Work on fluency and/or generalization
Task 5 Integrate? Apply? Task 6 Review, firm, reteachOf course, instruction occurs within a curriculum. Here are the main units. Slide13
Note: there are objectives---performances and standards---for the whole curriculum, for each unit, for each lesson, and for each task in a lesson
.
Performance: What students will do.
Standards/assessment: How students are to do the performance. Usually:
Correct, such as percentage correct.
Speed. Such as time; correct problems per minute.
Completeness: steps completed, issues addressed.Slide14
If your materials do not state objectives for you, then you have to make them up
.
Where do you get objectives for a whole curriculum?
State, district, and school standards.
Research; e.g., on “best practices in science.”
Your own knowledge.Slide15
What about objectives for units, lessons, and tasks
?
Do a knowledge analysis of the objectives for the whole curriculum.
“Students describe how galaxies consist of solar systems, which consist of planets, which (in the case of earth) consist of ecosystems, which are influenced by a variety of other systems (geological, biological, sociological), which consist of life forms.”
“Students define the following concepts: system, ecosystem, tectonics, ….”
What do you have to teach for students to achieve those objectives?Slide16
In what sequence
would you teach
that content?
These large chunks are
your Units:
Systems
. 2. Biological systems. 3. Ecosystems. 4. Earth as a system
. 5. Solar system. 6. Galactic systems.
Now, what are objectives for each unit?
System.
“Define system.” “What are main features of systems: structure
and process?” “Give examples of systems and state their
features.”
This is what you have to teach for Unit 1, in a sequence of lessons.Slide17
Each lesson teaches some of the knowledge needed to achieve the Unit objectives.
For example, Lesson 1 of Unit 1 might give examples of systems---atom, cell, organ, forest, marsh—and then define system and tell the features.
There would be objectives for this lesson. “Give examples of systems.” “State the definition of system.” “State main features of systems.”
This is what you would teach in Lesson 1.Slide18
Each lesson is a sequence of Tasks.
Each task focuses on a part of the knowledge needed for students to achieve the lesson (and therefore the Unit, and therefore the curriculum) objectives.
For example,
Task 1.
Boys and girls. New concept. System. Spell system.
Here’s the definition of system. Look at your guided
notes. A
system is a group
of interacting, interrelated, or interdependent elements forming a complex
whole.
say that definition….
[Task objective] You Slide19
Task 2.
Let’s look at each part of that definition. You tell me the main words in it. [Task objective.]
Elements…
Interacting…
Interconnected…
Complex whole…
Task 3. Now let’s examine what these words mean, and see how they describe different kinds of systems. [Task objective is that students (a) define each of the system terms, and (b) use them to identify aspects of different systems
.
“Here’s a muscle cell. Name the elements….”Slide20
Instruction
1
. Maximize
time for teaching.
a. Have necessary materials readily available and at hand.
b. Control
noninstruction
activities---announcements and other interruptions.
c. Use routines for distributing and collecting materials
. Teach how; practice; do “sprints.”Slide21
2.
Use productive grouping in differentiated instruction.
a. Give pre-tests or placement tests
(of what is taught throughout a curriculum) to
place students in groups with other students at the same level or spot in a curriculum---homogeneous grouping.
b. Keep the groups small—say six to eight students.
c. Move students to different groups based on progress monitoring information.
d. Have lower performers seated close to you, and separate students with problematic behaviors.Slide22
Prepare
student for new material being taught.
Make
sure they are firm on the pre-skill
elements
and/or background knowledge.
These knowledge elements are determined by
knowledge analysis
; e.g.,
revealing the
important concepts in a science passage; the concepts and rules needed to do each step in a math routine.
Teach elements (pre-skills) early, and review/firm them continually before they are integrated into larger routines that USE the elements.Slide23
4.
Prepare students
for the start of each lesson and for the start of each new task in the lesson.
a. Teach
and practice having students get ready for learning. “Show me ready.”
b. Get
into lessons quickly, and give encouragement. “Okay, we’re ready to learn. Here we go. Remember, when you try hard, you get it!
c.
Reinforce
attentive, effortful behavior. “I love the way John is listening to Jerry read.”
d. Re-establish attention and participation immediately. “I need to see everyone sitting ready.” “I need to hear EVERYbody!..... That’s it. NOW we have everybody!” ”My turn!”Slide24
Design
instruction on the basis of
objectives
a.
W
hat students will DO---not what they will know, appreciate, understand, or demonstrate), and
b.
HOW
they will do it---performance standards such as accuracy, completeness, and
speed.
Focus
communication precisely on objectives.
No blather.Slide25
6.
Prepare
the lesson for delivery.
a.
Script
portions
that must be
logically faultless
, such as wording and examples in definitions, steps in routines (such as math and reading).
b.
Prepare places in your presentation for test/checks of student acquisition. “So what do you do next?” “Remember to…” c. Anticipate specific errors or difficult tasks, and prepare to repeat models and the lead (“with me”); use pre-corrections (reminders) and
information checks
. For example,
“They are not yet firm with these definitions; so I’ll review them first.”
“Remind students
of the
rule on renaming.”
“Ask students to repeat
an
instruction.”Slide26
7. Lessons are a sequence of knowledge-rich tasks. Each task in a lesson has a clear
instructional function
.
Teach
something new
(facts, concepts, rules, cognitive routines). [acquisition]
“
New vocabulary word
. Republic.”
“Here are the steps in the routine for calculating slope and
intercept.”
b. Summarize. “The 9 events leading to the War of Independence are
…”
Build
fluency. “You can do these problems in 1 minute.
The error
limit
is two. GO
!”
d. Review and probe/test (retention). “Let’s review our concepts.”Slide27
More instructional function
s…
e. Expand---add more to existing facts, examples, concepts.
f. Generalize knowledge to new examples. “Here are new
examples
of linear functions. Calculate slope and intercept with
the
same routine as with earlier examples.”
g. Strategically integrate---combine information into a larger whole,
such as an explanatory essay, or a research project, or a math routine. For example…Teach what a linear function is. + >> Define data points as coordinates on X/Y axes. + >> Graph data points. + >> Explain the straight lines as examples of linear functions. +>> Show that all sections of a line (function) are the same in the ratio of change in Y over change in X. +>> Model, lead, test the sequence of steps in the routine for calculating the slope.
Slide28
Use
the proper format for teaching each form of
knowledge
, based on the logic of learning.
We have a learning mechanism: sense organs and brain.
The learning mechanism runs on logic. It does two things.
a.
The learning mechanism figures out what events mean.
This is the construction of knowledge.
The learning mechanism uses
inductive logic.
How? It compares and contrasts events; it sees how they are the same and different; it sees how some things go together and other things don’t; it infers (induces, generalizes, figures out) that:Slide29
a.
There are KINDS of things-
--classes, called
concepts.
Millions of classes/concepts make up the stuff in our reality.
We
don’t see a configuration of colors and shapes.
We see
a member of the class/concept of table
.
We see reality through our concepts.
The learning mechanism also learns that (or is told that)
b. Individual examples of kinds of things have features. The dog is
brown. Facts.The learning mechanism also figures out that…..Slide30
Some
classes/concepts
are connected
. All dogs are canines. Some cheese reeks of decay. No poison is good eating. Whenever X increases, Y increases. If and only if X occurs will Y
occur.
Rules.
And the learning mechanism gets (infers) that
Some outcomes happen through a sequence.
Routines.
For example, to figure out (a + b) (c + d), do FOIL.
To sound out a word (ram) do
rrraaammm
. To describe a forest, state the following facts….These are the only kinds of knowledge we can know, store, communicate, learn, teach. Concepts, facts, rules, routines.Slide31
Mostly, we store and communicate knowledge with arrangements of sounds, words, and sentences—language (vocal, written, or
nonvocal
gestures).
But we also use sculpture (“Is that a man or a banana?”), music, dance, painting.Slide32
The
learning mechanism figures out what events
mean---concepts, facts, rules, routines—using
inductive
logic. The learning mechanism also tests, affirms, disconfirms, and improves knowledge (concepts
, facts, rules,
routines) through
deductive logic.
“I have figured out that civilizations move through stages. [knowledge of a routine.] America is a civilization that is in the phase of intellect. I predict that America will next be in the phase of decadence.” [If the prediction is confirmed, then the whole theory is confirmed. If the prediction is not confirmed, the learning mechanism may try to revise the theory so that it fits the facts.]Slide33
It stands to reason that:
When instruction makes it easy for the learning mechanism to do its inductive (knowledge construction) and deduction (knowledge applying and testing) business, the learner will make fewer errors on the way to an objective, and will take less time and less learning experiences to achieve an objective.
[Does teaching with multiple formats make it easier?!!!] Slide34
So, what are the kinds of knowledge, and what are effective formats for teaching them?Slide35
1a. Basic
or sensory concepts.
One example shows all of the defining features.
red, straight line, on top.
How to teach.
**
Present/model a range of
examples
that differ in size, shape, etc., but are the
same in the defining feature
(e.g., color)—to allow comparison, to identify sameness. “This is red.” ** Juxtapose examples and nonexamples that are the same except for the defining feature---to show contrast, to identify difference that makes the difference.
**
Test with all examples and
nonexamples
(
delayed acquisition test
). “Is this red?...Is this red?”
**
Test with
new
examples (
generalization test
).
“red” “red” “not red” “red” “not red” “red”
juxtaposition
juxtapositionSlide36
1b.
Higher-order
concepts.
Features are spread out. Can’t be sensed all at once.
Representative democracy, cell mitosis, table, galaxy.
How to teach.
a.
Teach
the definition
: model, lead, test/check.
“
“Mitosis is the process of cell division in eukaryotic cells (this has to be defined FIRST) that consists of six phases---interphase, prophase, metaphase anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis. Slide37
Then
present examples and
nonexamples
, as
with
sensory concepts.
**
Test all
(delayed acquisition test). “Is
this
…?” “How do you know
?”
** Generalize to new examples and nonexamples.Slide38
How to teach.
b.
Teach the definition
: model, lead, test/checkSlide39
Format for teaching facts.
(1) State the fact (model). [Students write it down in guided notes? Students say it to
themselves
?]
(2) Then have students say the fact with you (lead). [If needed.]
(3) Then have students state the fact by themselves. [test/check] Slide40
Format for teaching higher-order concepts, continued.
(2) Then present examples that show each phase with different cells, so that students can see the
sameness
in the essential features. “This is metaphase. Notice
it has (these features).
And THIS is
metaphase
. Notice that
it
also
has (these features)…”
(3) Then juxtapose examples and nonexamples that are similar, but that differ in the essential (defining) feature of each phase. “This is metaphase. Notice these both have…. This is NOT metaphase. Notice that the one called ‘metaphase has.... But the once called ‘not metaphase one does NOT have… So THAT feature is the difference between metaphase and not metaphase.”Slide41
Format for teaching higher-order concepts, continued.
4) Then test all examples and
nonexamples
used (delayed acquisition test). “Is this…?”….“How do
you know?”
(5) Then present new examples and
nonexamples
and show student the features that make them examples and
nonexamples
. Then test. “Is this anaphase?... How do you know?” [Students state the features that define the concept—anaphase.] (Generalization)Slide42
a. Facts.
Declarative statements (subject
predicate) about a particular, individual subject.
Examples.
The first ten amendments are called “The Bill of Rights.”
Boston is the capital of Massachusetts.Slide43
Format
2.
for teaching higher-order concepts.
Inductive.
Give examples of a concept. “This is a republic.” [Rome, Athens, Venice, U.S.A.] Tell the features. Some are part of the definition (political units, representation, voting); others are not (climate, language, time period, size).
Give
nonexamples
of the concept. Make sure the
nonexamples
are just like the examples in the
nonrelevant
features, but are different in the defining features, so that students can infer the difference (in the relevant features) that makes the difference in whether the instance is an example or a
nonexample
.3. Coach students to compare examples to find sameness, and to contrast examples and nonexamples to find difference. Coach students to state how examples are the same. These same
features ae the definition.Slide44
Coach
students to
state the definition:
“A republic is a political system in which (features)…”
Show new examples and
nonexamples
and have students identify them as such. Have students use the definition to make the judgment. “How do you know?” This is a generalization test.Slide45
d. Rules.
Statements that connect NOT one thing and another thing (e.g., name and
date = fact),
but
connect
whole sets of things (concepts). Examples:
When
(whenever, if, the more)
demand
(a whole
class
of examples) increases, (then, the more/the less) price (a whole class of examples) increases.
All/
some
/
no
(examples in the class of) dogs/
cats
/
fish
are (members of the larger class of)
canines/
tigers
/
have wheels
.
Rule relationships
be shown on diagrams; e.g., graphs and models of interconnections.Slide46
Format for teaching rules.
Teach
rules one of two ways.
a.
Deductive
method-
--from general (rule) to specific (examples). Examples reveal rule.
(
1) Teach the rule statement (model, lead, test) first.
(
2) Then present examples and
nonexamples---as with concepts. Verbal and visual models. (3) Then test all examples and nonexamples. “Is this (verbal description or graph) an example of the demand-price rule?”
“
No.”
“
How do you know
?” Students
state rule
.
(4) Then generalize to/test new examples and
nonexamples
.Slide47
Format for teaching rules, continued.
b. Inductive method---from specific (examples) to general (rule).
Students
infer
(figure out) rule
from
examples
. More complex than the deductive method.
(
1) Present a range of examples first (e.g., different
price-demand curves
): cars, oil, gold.
(2) Show students how to compare the examples and to identify the sameness—the relationship; e.g., one variable goes up and the other variable goes up. “Demand varies directly with price.” (3) Then present nonexamples, and show (in relation to the rule) how they are nonexamples
. “Demand is increasing, but price stays the same. That does NOT fit the
rule.”
(4) Then test all examples and
nonexamples
. “Is this one an example of the rule?... How do
you
know?” [Acquisition test.]
(5) Then give new examples and
nonexamples
, and have students say if they are or are not
examples
, and how they know. [Generalization test.]
Slide48
d.
Routines.
A
sequence of steps for getting something done.
Examples
:
Solving
math problems, sounding out words, writing essays, brushing teeth.
Format for teaching routines.
(1) Model, lead, test each step (or a few steps).
(2) Add a few more steps and then do the whole sequence so far (model, lead, test); (3) Add a few more, until students are doing the whole sequence. Use a series of formats in which teacher first models all the steps and students watch (or do one step); repeat until students’ part is firm. Then the teacher models fewer steps and the students do the rest, repeating until firm. Repeat until students do the whole routine.Slide49
Adequately
teach and assess all phases of mastery
: acquisition of new knowledge (initial instruction) fluency (accurate and quick), generalization (application to new examples), integration of elements into larger wholes, retention
.
Generalization
Acquisition Integration Retention
Fluency
For each phase, there are stated objectives, instructional procedures, assessment of progress, and suggested remediation (if there is too little progress) based on assessment data
.
Here’s more.
Slide50
Acquisition phase.
General procedure
.
(
1) Gain attention. “Eyes on me
.”
(
2) Frame instruction. “Now you’ll learn to
…” State:
(a) Performance (e.g., which problems); and
(b) Standards (accuracy, speed, completeness).
(
3) Model (‘My turn.”), lead (“Do it with me.”), test/check (“Your turn,”) the first example in the acquisition set; e.g., the routine for solving a kind of math problem. (4) Verify correct responses; correct all errors (model, lead, test, start over, retest), firm weak parts (e.g., a step in a routine), or even reteach.
Even more
Slide51
Acquisition phase, continued
(5) Model, lead, test/check the next examples in the acquisition set.
(6) Test/check all examples---delayed acquisition test.
“Your turn to do ALL our problems.”
(7) Verify correct responses; correct all errors (model, lead, test, start over, retest), firm weak parts (e.g., a step in a routine), or even reteach.
(8) Test/teach generalization to new examples.
“These are new examples, but you can (sound them
out; solve them with the routine). I’ll show you how
(model)…
Now your turn…
(9) Verify correct responses; correct all errors (model, lead, test, start over, retest), firm weak parts (e.g., a step in a routine), or even reteach.Slide52
b.
Building fluency---accuracy plus speed
.
(
1) Model fluency. “I’ll show you how to read sentences fast
.”
(2) Teach
component skills
(knowledge elements) to
fluency, from the smallest to the largest units.
For instance,
Answering comprehension questions
about sentences, then paragraphs, then sections, then whole documents fast.How do you know what are the component skills (knowledge elements) of
a more complex performance? Answer:
knowledge analysis
. “What kinds of fluency are involved in fluent reading (with comprehension) of a whole passage?” Answer---from smaller to larger elements of fluency:
Answering questions about
sentences,
then paragraphs
, then sections,
then whole
documents fast.
Apply this fluency-building principle to any math routine.Slide53
Building fluency, continued.
(3) Use pacing devices. Clapping, metronome.
(4) Repetition. “Let’s read it again the fast way. Error limit is two.”
(5) Speed drills, one minute timings. Graph towards fluency objective.Slide54
c.
Generalization of knowledge to new examples.
(
1) Use a
generalization set-
--examples that differ in nonessential ways
from the
acquisition set
(e.g
., different
numbers),
but are the same in essential ways (e.g., how you treat
them) as
examples of the same KIND of problem. (2) Model for students how to see that new examples are the same (in how you treat them) as the ones in the acquisition set
. Show essential features.
(
3) Work on
new examples
one at a time: model, lead, test.
(
4) Gradually, fade out the model and lead until students are
independent working with the new examples.Slide55
d
.
Strategically integrate part skills (basics) into larger wholes
;
e.g., use knowledge of historical
periods
, biography, rhyme, figures of speech, and symbolism to perform a routine---analyze
poems
.
(1) Analyze a whole into its
knowledge
elements; analyze each element into smaller
elements.
(2) Think of a logical sequence of instruction for integrating the elements.a. One way. Big idea; then details that reveal or support the big idea.For instance, it makes more sense, logically, to show students how to find the big idea expressed by a poem, than to identify figures of speech in poems.
The Second
Coming [excerpt. W.B. Yeats, 1919]
Turning and turning in the widening gyre
[circles]
The falcon cannot hear the falconer;
[Humanity is disconnected from God.]
Things fall apart; the
centre
cannot hold;
[What happens then.]
Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world,
The blood-dimmed tide is loosed, and everywhere
The ceremony of innocence is drowned;
The best lack all conviction, while the worst
Are full of passionate intensity.
More on strategic integration
Slide56
S
trategic integration, continued
.
Another way
. Teach less-complex knowledge elements and gradually integrate them.
For instance, firm up multiplication and subtraction; then teach estimation (56 divided by 12 is….); then integrate these in the routine (set of steps) for long division.
As
you firm up earlier taught elements and teach a new one, integrate these into a
whole routine-
--sequence of steps.
Do
this step by step (add steps) and explicitly, with: Model. Teacher alone. Lead. Student and teacher together. Test. Student alone. Verification and error correction—repeat until firm
More
Slide57
Building a routine by integrating elements into a sequence of steps is best done
over
a series of lessons.
Watch as new elements/steps are added to the routine sequence.
Lesson
1
. say sounds (mmm,
ahhh
,
sss
) +
read letter-sounds (m, a, s).
Lesssons 2 and 3. say sounds + read letter-sounds + use letter-sounds to sound out words (am
aaammm
, ma
mmmaaaa
,
sam
ssssaaammm
)
Lessons 4-8
. say sounds +
read letter-sounds +
use letter-sounds to
sound out words +
say words fast (
sam
!)
+
read words fast
(
sam
sssaaammm
sam
!). Even more
Slide58
S
trategic integration, continued.
Teach routines using a
sequence of formats
that move from
more
to
less teacher modeled.
Watch.
First
integrating format. Teacher models steps in
a math
algorithm (and explains what she’s doing); students write numerals and signs. Second integrating format. Teacher tells students to do all the steps she modeled; tells students what they steps are; has students say what they will do---until firm; students do the
steps.
Third
integrating format. Teacher has students say what they will do---until firm; students
do
the routine.
Last
integrating format. Students do the routine and explain each step.
Slide59
e.
Retention
.
(1)
Cumulative review after a series of lessons.
Most examples from the last lesson plus most
of
the second to last lesson, plus some of previous lessons.
(
2)
Also review at the start, middle, and end of lessons.
Always include items on which students were not firm.
Reteach as needed.
Use retention information (e.g., which students miss which items) to improve teaching in general (e.g., use more examples during acquisition; review and firm more often) and to individualize (e.g., special sessions of intensive instruction).Slide60
10. Organize lessons around this format. Seven-point lesson plan.
a.
Objectives.
State what students will
do; the forms
of knowledge worked on;
the phases of
learning worked on (acquisition, fluency, generalization, retention.); how
learning will be
measured/tested/applied
.
b. Standards. State type of lesson (lecture, cooperative, mixed); procedures to be followed; expectations/challenge for success. c. Anticipatory set (to focus attention and provide an organizing framework). Present big ideas (possibly advance organizer in the form of diagram). Review. Slide61
d.
Teaching presentation.
Some variation of gain attention, frame, model, lead, test/check,
verification
(to communicate new fact, list, concept, rule relationship, or routine
),
followed
by
questioning
that expands on the new information. E.g., after asking
comprehensions questions
that are tied directly to the text just read (who said/did what, etc.?) ask for
other
examples students might know. e. Guided practice. Application: worksheets, write poem, solve more math problems, do experiment—but circulate and supervise. f. Closure. Review. Delayed acquisition test/check. Correct errors, form weak parts, reteach as needed. Plan to review at the start of next lesson. g. Independent work.
Not every lesson. E.g., speed drills, paired reading.
Slide62
The
order
is
like this.
Gain attention
Frame instruction
Model New Information. “My turn.”
Lead students through the information. “Do it with me.”
Give an immediate acquisition test/check.
“Your
turn
.”
Verify correct responses, or correct errors, or firm up a weak part, or reteach.Model-lead-test more examples (in a concept or rule) or steps (in a routine).Verify correct responses, or correct errors, or firm up a weak part, or reteach.Test all examples---delayed acquisition test.Verify correct responses, or correct errors, or firm up a weak part, or reteach. Review, firm up weak parts, reteach as needed.Slide63
11. Plan ways to scaffold instruction
; i.e., various kinds of assistance to help teachers communicate information, and to help students acquire, organize, retrieve, and apply information/knowledge.
Examples are stated objectives, highlighting, reminders and hints, wait time, big ideas, advance organizers (lesson and unit outlines, guided notes, concept/proposition maps, lists of steps to follow in routines), summaries,
diagrams, glossaries
.Slide64
12.
Begin instruction on a new lesson
with review, especially of knowledge elements and background knowledge relevant to the current instruction (pre-skills).
The teacher…
a. Corrects errors. “12 goes into 22 ONE time. How many times does 12 go into 22?
b. Firms weak
part-knowledge
. “Let’s practice drawing
best-fit
lines as part of finding the
slope of a line.” c. Reteaches as needed. “Okay, let’s start over, with step 1.” …before introducing new material that requires this background knowledge.Slide65
13. Next in a lesson, frame the main business of the lesson
by stating the kind of new knowledge to be taught, the objectives (final performance and standards), and big ideas that will help students organize, remember or access, and comprehend the new knowledge, and connect new with prior knowledge.
a. Objectives should state what students
will
do---the final performance
.
They should not speak of know, appreciate,
demonstrate
, or understand.
b. Objectives should state
performance standards---the desired accuracy, rate, and completeness. For example, how many concepts per minute will be correctly identified from examples. Or, “I’ll say a word slowly; then you’ll say that word fast.”Slide66
14. Next in a lesson,
model
or present new information clearly and
focus
on the objectives.
The teacher:
a. Shares his or her thought processes. “First I…. Then I…”
(explicit instruction)
b. Uses clear wording. Uses consistent wording.
c. Repeats the information as needed.
d. Presents one step or item at a time in a list or routine, depending on how many steps or items
students can handle. Wording. Should be simple declarative statements (“This is…”; “We will…”); consistent wording in the same task and when teaching the same kind of knowledge (“New concept.”); focused on objective.Slide67
Examples of concepts, rules, and routines:
Clearly
show relevant
features.
Cover a varied range.
A
re juxtaposed
to show sameness across examples and difference between examples and
nonexamples
Are presented with frequent
and regular examples first; e.g., teach m, s, a, before x and
ing
; teach regular words (sad) before irregular worlds (said).
The teacher repeats the model as needed. “Watch me again,….”Slide68
15. If students are not likely to learn from the model alone,
lead students
through the application of the new information
just modeled
.
Sometimes called “guided practice.” The
lead is not always needed, but is it best to err on the side of caution.
“Now we’ll work that problem together.”
Repeat until students are
firm.
Slide69
16. Use pre-corrections, or reminders, to prevent errors when it is students’ turn to respond
.
“Remember,
F…O…I…L
. Multiply the First numerals; then the Outside numbers; then the Inside numbers; then the Last numbers. You tell me which numbers we do first… Which ones we do outside…. Which ones we do inside…..; which ones we do last….”Slide70
Prevent errors, continued.
Also, check
students’ preparation
to take their turn.
Do they remember what to do?
“We always multiply numbers in the ones column first. What numbers do we multiply first?.... What numbers are in the ones column?... So what numbers are we going to multiply first?”Slide71
17. After
the model (and if used, the lead), give an immediate
acquisition test/check
to determine whether students learned the new information.
Test/check
every time new information is presented to be sure that students learned it.
This is especially important when teaching diverse learners, essential material, and difficult material. “Your turn to define our new concepts
.”
Ask
the question first or gives an instruction, before calling
on the
group or an individual. b. After calling on the group for a choral response, call on individual students, and make sure to call on students who have made errors or who in general have a harder time learning. “Now for individual turns.” Slide72
c. Give think time (quick count of 3) before calling on the group or an individual.
“Get ready….. Go.”
d. Use a signal to tell students to start; e.g., for example, tapping the book; saying “Go.”
e. Immediately verify correct responses. “Yes, you read those words the fast way.”
Repeat until students are firm.Slide73
18. Correct all errors and/or
firm
weak knowledge after the lead and/or test/check.
a. This is done in a matter of fact way and directed to the group.
b. Model. Teacher immediately gives the answer or demonstrates the step. “That word is
standing
.”
c. Lead. Students say the answer or do the step
with
the teacher. “Sound it out with me
.” [Use if model is not enough.] d. Test/check. Teacher asks the question or gives the problem step again. “Your turn. Sound it out.”Slide74
Error correction, continued.
e. Verification. Specific praise. “Yes, that word is standing. Now you got it!”
f. Retest/starting over. “Start that sentence over.”
g. Delayed test. Teacher comes back and checks again. “Let’s review our words one more time. [When students approach the spot where they erred, “Careful. Don’t let it fool you.”]Slide75
19. If new material is a
concept (e.g., mitosis),
rule-relationship (e.g., how price varies with demand), or cognitive routine (e.g., a math algorithm), make sure to:
a.
Use
a wide and varied range of examples.
b.
Juxtapose
examples to reveal sameness. “These problems
look
different, but they are really
the same. Look at how they are the same…. Now you tell how they are the same…” c. Juxtapose examples and nonexamples to reveal difference. “These examples look the same, but they have an important difference. Look at how they are different… Now you tell how they are different.” Slide76
d. When teaching routines (sequences of steps), use a sequence of formats, from more to less teacher-modeled. For example, when teaching students to read and answer questions about a passage,
(1) First read the passage, ask and answer your own questions, while students read along.
(2) Next read the passage and ask students questions.
(3) Next have students read the passage and then ask students questions.
(4) Finally, have students read the passage and then have students ask and answer the questions.Slide77
20. Give
a
delayed acquisition test/check
(calling on both the group as a whole and then individual students) to determine whether students learned the concept, rule relationship, or cognitive routine from
the set of the examples and
nonexamples
, or whether students remember the set of facts presented
.
“Ill give examples, and you name the concept.”
“Here are all the problems we worked on. Your turn to do them by yourself. Try not to make errors.”Slide78
The teacher then plans to
work
on
>> Generalization
of knowledge to new
examples.
>> Fluency.
>> Integration
of knowledge into larger
wholes.
>> Retention
.Slide79
21. Teach at a brisk pace, with enthusiasm,
by speaking more quickly; staying
on
task; using words whose meanings are clear; using the same instructional vocabulary from one task to another; cutting out unnecessary words.Slide80
22. End the lesson by
reviewing the lesson
(e.g., main things taught) and state how what was taught is relevant to next lessons.
The review:
a. States what was learned, how it built on what came before, and how it will be built on by next
lessons
.
“Next, we’ll use our facts to make a time line of the American Revolution.”
b. Has students once more reveal essential knowledge.
Correct all errors, firm up weak elements (part-firming), or reteach. Begin the next lesson by firming all weak skills.Slide81
23. Use frequent (every 5 to 10 lessons) curriculum-based progress monitoring assessments
(“mastery tests
,” “
checkouts) that assess acquisition and retention, generalization, integration, and fluency.
These mastery tests assess a sample:
a. Of
new material
that was taught in the previous 5 or 10 lessons; e.g., math problems, concepts. This assesses acquisition and retention.
b. Of new items that are similar to those that were taught; e.g., new math problems, or new examples of concepts. This assesses generalization.Slide82
Of
“a” and “b”
(acquisition and generalization items) to
see how accurate and fast students are.
“
Now do this set of problems fast. Be careful!!” Or, “Now read this passage quickly. Try not to make errors.” This measures fluency.
Use guidelines for deciding when students’ performance on assessment means that they (1) are firm and can move ahead; (2) need firming on certain knowledge; (3) need
reteaching
; or (4) need intensive instruction. Have plans and procedures for such remediation.
Slide83Slide84