ap psychology: Unit 7 Cognition - PowerPoint Presentation

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ap psychology: Unit 7

Cognition: Thinking

Unit III Developmental Psychology

Introducing the “DESIGNATED UNIT…”Slide2

Marshmallow Challenge

What to do:Build the tallest freestanding structure: the winning team is the one that has the tallest structure measured from the tabletop/surface to the top of the marshmallow. That means the structure cannot be suspended from a higher structure, like a chair, ceiling,etc

The entire marshmallow must be on top: the entire marshmallow needs to be on the top of the structure. Cutting or eating part of the marshmallow disqualifies the team.Use as much or as little of the materials: you can use as many or as few of the 20 spaghetti sticks as much or as little of the string or tape. You cannot use any other

materials You can break up the spaghetti, string or tape: you are free to break the spaghetti and cut up the tape and string to create new structures.

The challenge lasts 18 minutes: you cannot hold onto the structure when the time runs out. Any team touching or supporting the structure at the end of the exercise will be disqualified.Slide3

Post Challenge Discussion

Where did the ideas come from for building your structure? Did everyone contribute? Were ideas received in a systematic way? Did you use a method of trial and error? Rapid prototyping? Rebuilding? Redesigning? Plan and execute? Did you fail? Did you learn from your failures?How many standing structures are there in your classroom? Are the structures similar in design or different? What roles did team members play – leader, follower, doer, thinker, risk-taker, planner, others? Can you identify some of the key steps in the process of innovation? How did the winning team succeed? What do you think the key to their success was? Slide4

Do Now: Fact or Falsehood Worksheet

Read each statement, fill in either true or falseSlide5

Part one

Cognition: The BasicsSlide6

Cognition

: The BasicsGoing beyond memory… How do we think? How do we create ideas? How do we solve problems? How do we make decisions?

If storage & retrieval were the only processes that we used to handle information, we would be little more than glorified VCRsYet, we have the ability to do something with this information…For example, we are able to combine words from our memory and create completely unique sentences

But how?Slide7

Cognition

: The BasicsCognitionAll of the mental activities associated with thinking,

knowing and communicatingCognitive psychologists study the following mental activities… Concepts & Prototypes

Problem Solving & CreativityDecision MakingJudgment FormationSlide8

Cognition

: The BasicsTypes of ThinkingDirected Thinking (Convergent Thinking)

A systematic & logical attempt to reach a specific goal or answer, such as a solution to a math problemExamplesAlgorithms, heuristics, rule-boundNondirected Thinking (

Divergent Thinking)Consists of a free flow of thoughts with no particular plan and depends more on imagesExamplesBrainstorming, imagination, insight, flexible, no rulesSlide9

Cognition

: The BasicsMetacognitionThe awareness of one’s own cognitive processesIn other words, metacognition is “thinking about thinking

”ExampleIf you are having trouble solving a problem, thinking about your strategy may cause you to change strategies Slide10

Part two

Cognition: Concepts & PrototypesSlide11

Cognition

: Concepts & PrototypesConcepts (unit of thought

)A mental representation/grouping of similar objects, events, ideas or peopleExamplesChair; fruit; animalFormal Concepts

Defined by specific rules or featuresNatural ConceptsThe result of real-world experiencesTo further simplify we organize into

category hierarchies Slide12

Cognition

: Concepts & PrototypesPrototype (unit of thought)An example

of a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of that conceptThe most basic form of conceptsBased on one’s experiences and cultural background

Fruit..?I think “apple”How do prototypes affect thinking?We use them to compare potential examples of a conceptSlide13

Part Three

Cognition: Problem Solving

In the Thompson family there are five brothers, and each brother has one sister. If you count Mrs. Thompson, how many females are there in the Thompson family?

Types of Problems

Approaches to SolvingObstacles to SolvingSlide14

Cognition

: Problem SolvingInductive v. Deductive ReasoningInductive ReasoningReasoning from the

specific to the generalAlso known as “Bottom-Up” LogicExamples?

Deductive ReasoningReasoning from the general to the specificAlso known as “Top-Down” logic

Examples?Slide15

Cognition

: Problem SolvingProblem SolvingActive efforts to discover what must be done in order to achieve a goal that is not readily attainableOne of the primary functions of

directed (convergent) thinkingWe all solve problems differently; however, we generally utilize the same strategies

Some may break a large problem into smaller issuesSome may combine smaller issues to create a larger problemAccording to psychologists, there are three basic types of problems…Slide16

Types of ProblemsSlide17

Cognition

: Problem SolvingInducing StructureRequire people to discover relations among numbers, words, symbols or ideas

ExamplesSeries completion problemsAnalogy problemsSlide18

Cognition

: Problem SolvingArrangementRequire people to arrange the parts of a problem in a way that satisfies some criterionExamplesString problem

Anagram problemSlide19

Cognition

: Problem SolvingTransformationRequire people to carry out a sequence of transformations in order to reach a specific goal

ExamplesHobbits & Orcs problem Water jar problemSlide20

Approaches to Problem SolvingSlide21

Cognition

: Problem SolvingTrial & ErrorInvolves trying possible solutions & discarding those that are in error until one worksAlso known as “

mechanical solution”AdvantagesGuarantees a solution(Works best with a small

number of possibilities)DisadvantagesOften applied haphazardly; extremely inefficientSlide22

Cognition

: Problem SolvingAlgorithmsA methodical, step-by-step procedure for trying all possible alternatives in searching for a solution to a problemAdvantagesWhen an algorithm is available, it GUARANTEES a solution

“Solve the anagram IHCRA”Disadvantages

Can be quite inefficient “The first person to figure out my password gets a 100% on the next test”Slide23

Cognition

: Problem SolvingHeuristicsA guiding principle, or “rule-of-thumb

” used in solving problems or making decisionsAn educated guess based on prior experiences Advantages

Allows one to simplify a problemFaster than algorithms (in many cases)Disadvantages

Doesn’t necessarily guarantee a solutionMore prone to errors than are algorithms Slide24

Cognition

: Problem SolvingSub-Goal (a type of heuristic)Intermediate steps toward a solution

When you reach a subgoal, you’ve solved part of the problemSome are more obvious than othersAnalogies

Tower of HanoiWriting a term paper Slide25

Cognition

: Problem SolvingWorking Backward (a type of heuristic)Works best when a problem has a well-specified end point/goal

ExampleThe shortest route to a new restaurant in townWord problems (in many cases)Slide26

Cognition

: Problem SolvingMeans-End Analysis (a type of heuristic)A method in which a person determines the difference between the current situation and the goal and then tries to reduce the difference by various meansSlide27

Cognition

: Problem SolvingInsightA sudden & often novel realization of the solution to a problem; contrasts with strategy-based

solutionsHumans are not the only animals to display insightMarsha & Mary were born on the same day of the

same month of the same year to the same mother & father yet they’re not twins..?

At the moment of insight; burst of activity in the right temporal lobe; preceded by frontal lobe activity Slide28

Obstacles to Problem SolvingSlide29

Cognition

: Problem SolvingConfirmation BiasThe tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions & to ignore or distort contradictory evidenceExampleBelievers in ESP tend to remember the few studies that seem to support their beliefs, while at the same time “

forgetting” the cases in which studies found no proofSlide30

Cognition

: Problem SolvingFixationThe inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem

solvingExamples Functional FixednessMental SetThe Matchstick ProblemHow would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles?Slide31
Slide32

Cognition

: Problem SolvingFunctional FixednessA block to problem solving that comes from thinking about objects only in terms of their typical functions

Candle-Mounting ProblemUsing these materials, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board?Slide33
Slide34

Cognition

: Problem SolvingMental SetThe tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving techniques that have worked for them in the past

ExampleEvery time Lee plays Rock, Paper, Scissors he attempts to win using a “rock”

The Nine Dot ProblemDraw four straight lines so that they pass through all nine dots without lifting your pencil from the paper & without touching any dot more than onceSlide35
Slide36

Part four

Cognition: CreativitySlide37

Cognition

: CreativityTry to think of 4-8 things that might happen if we suddenly had three arms…

Think of as many uses for a paperclip as you can…Add up your total number of uses and divide by twoAverage score tends to be 4

2 is unusually low8 is unusually high12 is very rare16 makes you better than one in a thousandSlide38

Cognition

: CreativityCreativityThe ability to produce novel and valuable ideas; unconventional solutionsFive components of creativityExpertise

Imaginative thinking skillsA venturesome personalityIntrinsic motivationA creative environment More characteristic of nondirected (

divergent) thinkersIs creativity linked to intelligence?Slide39

Part five

Cognition: Decisions & JudgmentsSlide40

Cognition

: Decisions & JudgmentsWhich airline is most dangerous to fly?What are Zeta Zeta Zetas like?Would Steven make a good spouse?

How likely am I to get hurt while skiing?Is a $1,000 deductible too high?Is Organic Chemistry going to be a fun class?Is this person guilty?Is Alpharetta a good place to raise kids?Slide41

Cognition

: Decisions & JudgmentsRepresentativeness HeuristicJudging the likelihood of something in terms of how well it seems to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant informationAssumes that any object that shares characteristics with the members of a particular category is also a member of that category

What is one of the major problems with the representativeness heuristic?Slide42

Sports Illustrated Model

Successful Business ManCognition: Decisions & Judgments

Which one of these people went to Harvard?Slide43

Cognition

: Decisions & JudgmentsOther ExamplesWhoa! You’re tall! Basketball or volleyball?You go to Milton? What type of truck do you drive?Cameron Diaz is blonde; she must be dumb…

Rottweilers are attack dogs; that dog is going to attack me!Slide44

Cognition

: Decisions & JudgmentsAvailability HeuristicEstimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in our memory; presuming that vivid memories are more commonBased on recency, vividness or distinctiveness

Why does our availability heuristic tend to lead us astray? Slide45

The Bronx, New York

Gary, IndianaCognition: Decisions & Judgments

Where would you be more leery of being robbed?Slide46

Cognition

: Decisions & JudgmentsOther ExamplesI’ve never crashed my car, but planes crash all of the time! I’m never going to fly!People on welfare always abuse it. I read an article about a lady with several unruly kids who stayed on welfare for 10 years. Can you believe that? That stuff happens all of the time!

Ugh! I’m so stupid. I always get Fs. I’m sure I’ll get an F on this test too!Slide47

Cognition

: Decisions & JudgmentsSlide48

Cognition

: Decisions & JudgmentsOverconfidence (heuristics can lead to overconfidence)The tendency to be more confident than correct; to overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs & judgments

Our confidence is not a good indicator of how correct we areSlide49

Cognition

: Decisions & JudgmentsWhat percentage of crimes in the U.S. are violent?12 percentWhat percentage of accused felons plead insanity? What percentage of those are acquitted?

Less than one percent; less than a quarter What percentage of convictions for felony crimes are obtained through trial instead of plea bargaining?Less than 10 percentSlide50

Cognition

: Decisions & JudgmentsBelief Perseverance Maintaining a belief even after it has been proven wrong Example

“John has an IQ of 130, he must be a good student…” “He has a GPA of 1.8...” “He must be bored...” Slide51

Cognition

: Decisions & JudgmentsBelief BiasThe tendency for one’s preexisting

beliefs to distort logical reasoning by making invalid conclusionsExamples

Republicans are religious. Democrats aren’t Republicans. Democrats aren’t religious.God is love. Love is blind. Ray Charles is blind. Ray Charles is God. (Anonymous graffiti) Slide52

Cognition

: Decisions & JudgmentsFramingThe way in which an issue is posed/framed; can significantly impact decisions & judgments (as well as memory)

ExamplesHow should ground beef be marketed? As 25% fat or 75% lean?90% of the population will be saved with this medication or 10% of the population will die despite this medication?

You shouldn’t drink more than two drinks per day or you shouldn’t drink more than 730 drinks per year…Slide53

Cognition

: Decisions & JudgmentsCompensatory ModelA rational decision-making model in which choices are systematically evaluated on various criteriaExamplesBuying a car

MPGs, safety, comfort, design, etc.Searching for an apartmentRent, good neighbors, good location, safety, cleanliness, etc.