IB Psychology Objectives of this Unit Describe and evaluate the cultural context and development the conceptual framework the methodology and the application of the cognitive perspective Describe and evaluate theories and empirical studies within this perspective ID: 913061
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Slide1
The Cognitive Level of Analysis
IB Psychology
Slide2Objectives of this Unit
Describe and evaluate the cultural context and development, the conceptual framework, the methodology, and the application of the cognitive perspective.
Describe and evaluate theories and empirical studies within this perspective.
Explain how cultural, ethical, gender, and methodological considerations affect the interpretation of behavior from a cognitive perspective.
Compare theories, empirical studies and the conceptual framework of this model with the other perspectives.
Slide3Objectives continued….
Identify and explain the strengths and limitations of cognitive explanations of behavior.
Explain the extent to which free will and determinism are integral in this perspective.
Assess the extent to which concepts and models of information processing have helped the understanding of cognition.
Assess claims that this perspective lacks ecological validity, and be able to consider alternative research methods.
Slide4The Cognitive Level of Analysis
What are the main three main assumptions of the cognitive level of analysis?
Aim:
Do Now:
Homework:
See Agenda
Slide5“The Cognitive Revolution
”
1. Around the 1950’s psychologists began to explore cognition to further understand behavior.
2. Prior to this, ‘
observable behavior
’ was studied and this shift was called the Cognitive Revolution.
3. Cognitive Psychologists suggested that humans form internal mental representations to guide behavior.
4. Topics such as
memory, perception, artificial intelligence, amnesia and social cognition are studied.
Slide6Basic Information
Cognitive psychology is concerned with how people acquire, store, transform, use and communicate information.
Cognitive psychologists rejected the
behaviorist assumption
which stated that
mental events or states were unsuitable for scientific research
.
Believe that one cannot fully explain behavior in terms of stimulus-response connections (behaviorism)
This approach deems the person as important as environmental or biological stimuli alone.
Slide7Key Concepts of Cognitive Psych
Schema Theory
Information Processing
Memory
Heuristics and Problem Solving
Cognitive Dissonance
Perception, attention, memory, language
Slide8Basic Assumptions
1. Mental processes guide behavior!
-
Psychologists see the mind as a complex machine—rather like an intelligent, information processing machine using hardware (brain) and software (mental images or representations).
-
Cognitive processes actively
organize
and manipulate information that we receive - humans are NOT passive responders to their environment. - Reconstructive memories, perception and info- processing arise out of this idea.
Slide9The Necker Cube
: A visual test of perception.
Look at the object for a few seconds: Is the red dot on the near or far corner? What happens if you stare at the red dot for a few seconds?
- The images has two meaningful representations and the brain switches back and forth between them, because the brain does not know which way to interpret it.
Slide102. Mental processes
can
and
should
be investigated scientifically.
- Cognitive Psychologists believe that you cannot simply learn about behavior through
stimulus- response interactions. - therefore cognitive psychologists develop theories and use a number of scientific research methods to learn about human cognition
Slide11Cognitive Processes are influenced by social and cultural factors.
- Ex. Frederic Bartlett, who coined the term
schema,
states that cultural schemas influence remembering.
Schema:
A mental representation of knowledge.
Slide12Historical & Cultural Background
Cognitive psychology became of great importance in the mid-1950s. Several factors were important in this:
Dissatisfaction with the behaviorist approach in its simple emphasis on behavior rather than internal processes
The start of the use of computers allowed psychologists to try to understand the complexities of human cognition by comparing it with something simpler and better understood i.e. an artificial system such as a computer
Slide13Dissatisfaction with the Behavioral Approach
In the 1930’s cognitive psychology was not promoted as a way of thinking due to the fascination with
behaviorism
.
Psychologists such as
John B. Watson
proposed that “
introspection
”(the idea of reflecting on one’s own thoughts; proposed by Wilhelm Wundt) was not appropriate for the scientific study of behavior b/c it is not ‘observable’.
Perhaps best known for his remarks that he can mold any child into any vocation he wished simply by putting them in the appropriate environment (relates back to Locke’s theory of “empiricism”)
Slide14John Locke (1632-1704)
Claimed we are born with a
“
tabula rasa”
or blank slate ….experience is the only way in which behaviors can be formed. He believed that all experience is gained through the senses. This philosophy is called
“empiricism”
.
Slide15“
Little Albert
” –
case study conducted by John B. Watson, where using principles of
classical conditioning
, he conditioned fear of white rats into him.
Behaviorism
: is the belief that our behavior is due to stimulus-response interactions.
- it states we are merely a product of environment and that we are passive responders to env’t stimuli. - stress the lack of
free will and the importance of ‘determinism’
Slide16Cognitive Processes
The human mind is sophisticated and
has the ability to manipulate
abstract symbols, words and images
These mental representations are organized into
categories
, and allow us to think about situations and imagine what may happen.
Mental Representations
are how we store images and ideas in memory.
Slide17I. A Theory of Cognitive Process: Schema Theory
Created by
Frederic Bartlett
(1886-1969),
he carried out studies on
reconstructive memory
to show how humans process information using pre-existing “
schemas”
. Read a Native American story “The War of the Ghosts” to 20 English participants and found that as the story was read more to them their recall of the story dropped from 330 words to about 180 and often substituted bits of the story to match previous experiences. The recalled story gradually became more Western as items such as the ‘canoe’ was changed to a ‘boat’. The ghosts were often forgotten because they are not an important feature of Western culture.
This indicates that memory is influenced by our existing knowledge, which in turn is created by the culture in which we live
Slide18Schema Theory is a cognitive process about information processing. They are “
organizational frameworks of the mind
”.
It can describe how specific knowledge is
organized
and
stored
in memory so that it can be accessed and used when it is needed. One cannot see a schema inside someone else’s head, but psychologists believe it gives us insight into the mind nonetheless.Schema theory suggests that humans are active processors of information
and so when it a certain situations we use our schemas as templates dictating how to react or behave. Cognitive Schema: can be defined as networks of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations about particular aspects of the world.
Slide19Evaluation of Schema theory
Strengths
:
It is clear that schema theory pertains to how we categorize information and interpret stories and make inferences.
It has contributed to our understanding of “
memory distortions
” (Bartlett)
Social psychologists often refer to “social schemas” in explaining the origins of prejudice and stereotyping.
It supports the idea that culture can effect our way of thinking (memory).
Slide20Limitations
:
It is not clear
how
schemas are acquired in the first place and how they
actually
influence our cognitive processes.
Furthermore, some say that the concept of schemas are too vague (Cohen, 1993) and thus are not useful.
Slide21The Cognitive Level of Analysis
Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process.
Identify and evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies.
What short stories do you remember from your childhood?
Aim(s):
Do Now:
Homework:
See Agenda
Slide22REVIEW SLIDE: Schema theory
Mental frameworks used to organize information.
Frederic Bartlett
coined the term schema and stated that cultural schemas influence remembering.
Slide23One cannot see a schema, but psychologists believe it gives us insight into the mind.
Schema theory suggests that
humans are active processors of information.
REVIEW SLIDE:
Schema Theory
Slide24See the handout and read through Bartlett’s Study on Reconstructive Memory.
Summarize Bartlett’s contribution to Cognitive Psychology
Identify and evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies.
Bartlett’s Study of
Reconstructive Memory
Slide25Try to remember what is happening in the image that will flash on the screen.
Slide26(Allport & Postman, 1947)
Many recalled that a white man had been threatened with a razor by a black man.
Slide27SCHEMA THEORY
Schema theory indicates that prior expectations will influence our perceptions.
Stereotypes will lead to changes in how we subsequently remember information.
Slide28REVIEW SLIDE:
Evaluation of Schema theory
Strengths
:
Contributed to our understanding of “
memory distortions
” (Bartlett)
“Social schemas” can explain the origins of prejudice and stereotyping.
(Cultural Impact)
Slide29Limitations
:
It is not clear
how
schemas are acquired in the first place and how they
actually
influence cognitive processes.
REVIEW SLIDE:
Evaluation
of Schema theory
Slide30Big Idea
Explain how memory is shaped by
cultural factors.
Slide31II. Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process: LANGUAGE
Many researchers believe that language is primarily responsible for cognitive development.
Researchers, such as
Jean Piaget
, believed that through maturation we learn language but current research by others, such as
Lev
Vygotsky
and Jerome Bruner
, claim that maturation takes place because of language!!
Slide32A. Lev Vygotsky: Language and Cog Development.
After passing away in 1934 (
at the age of 34
) his work was suppressed by Soviets and re-emerged in the 70’s and 80’s.
He believed that language was the most important cognitive process in humans.
His theory is “
interactionist”
,
meaning that a child develops with the help of parents, teachers, older children and play. It is also “bidirectional” is the sense that culture interacts with the mind, the brain and genes.
He believed that humans think in language and since animals lack language their abilities are limited.
Slide33Vygotsky’s theory
a. believes that language and thought begin as separate functions in early dev’t
b. sometime in our 2
nd
year they deviate: there are pre- linguistic and pre-thought beh in the action of babies.
c. when we are older they meet again and thought becomes verbal and speech rational.
d. eventually a child moves into symbolic thought (and beyond the capabilities of animals).
He believes that a child’s ability to think abstractly and use all of the other cognitive processes depends of language.
Slide34“
ZPD
”
Zone of Proximal Development
:
-
Vygotsky states that all development depends on the social env’t and what happens in the “ZPD”.
What does that mean? - it is defined as the “difference b/w the actual dev’t level of the child alone and the potential dev’t with the aid of adult guidance or more capable peers” (Vygotsky, 1978).
- More simply…on their own children can only achieve so much. This is “actual development level”. But with the help of an adult or more capable peer, a child rises to the top of their development level.
Vygotsky believes that through these interactions and the use of language while experiencing these scenarios our cognitive development becomes more advanced.
Slide35He also believed that
animals are not building blocks for humans
b/c the key difference is that human thought is tied to language.
States that animals only perform actions to complete tasks whereas children act
and
speak when completing a task.
He noticed that when children attempted to complete
difficult tasks their “externalized speech” increased dramatically (they were trying to talk it out!!)
Slide36Slide37B. Jerome Bruner
Theorized that
Noam Chomsky’s
“
Language Acquisition Device
”
(an innate area of the brain where we learn and have the capabilities of learning language)
was incomplete as a theory. Chomsky downplayed culture and parenting.
Bruner introduced the concept “Language Acquisition Support System (LASS”) - he believed that dev’t has a biological basis, but the interaction b/w a caregiver and child activates this biology.
Slide38The
LASS
theory implies that parents are scaffolds for child dev’t. (similar to Vygotsky’s ZPD).
-
he believes that
human minds evolved in the context of a symbolic culture shared by others. Language makes understanding the rules of one’s culture possible
(Bruner, 1996).
- he states that there is an interplay b/w adults and children before they have actual language, but in order for children to make sense of it language needs to develop.
Slide39Bruner’s Theory: 3 phases of Cog. Dev’t
a.
Enactive phase
: babies show innate skills that allow them to manipulate objects, he considers this silent language.
b.
Ikonic Phase
: 2-5y.o. here children learn actual language but still think in images rather than symbols.
c. Symbolic Phase: 6-7y.o. here the child has internalizes symbolic abstractions and has full command of language.
Slide40C. Evaluation of Vygotsky and Bruner
Strengths
:
1. Both have “
domain-general theories
” where one underlying process accounts for all dev’t changes, i.e. language
2. Both are culturally based and state that children use language to make meaning of the world, therefore you can generalize theories to the masses.
Slide41Limitations
:
Vygotsky
used ‘
pilot studies
’ and Bruner used less experimental methods of testing as his career matured, which questions the reliability of the results.
Both describe language is innate yet fail to determine concrete physiological aspects to support that idea.
Slide42The Cognitive Level of Analysis
Outline Principles that define the Cognitive L.O.A and explain how these principles may be demonstrated in research.
(Principle/Assumption #2: The mind can be studied scientifically – Using the case of Loftus and Palmer, 1974)
What is eyewitness testimony? Do you believe it is reliable? Explain.
Aim:
Do Now:
Homework:
See Agenda
Slide43Loftus and Palmer, 1974
(The reliability of eye-witness testimony?)
The Study Overview (with video): http://www.simplypsychology.org/loftus-palmer.html
Slide44Elizabeth Loftus
Psychology professor and expert researcher on the
malleability
and
reliability
of memory, an instrumental figure in cognitive psychology.
Slide45Loftus and Palmer
Smashed: 41
Collided: 39
Bumped: 38
Hit: 34
Contacted: 32
Slide46Follow up
One hundred and fifty participants
Smashed:
Hit:
Not asked:
1 week later: Did you see broken glass?
Slide47Follow up
1 week later:
Did you see broken glass?
Smashed: 32%
Hit: 14%
Not asked: 12%
Slide48Criticisms - Method
LOW Ecological Validity
Why?
The experiment was not typical of real life situations.
Slide49Two kinds of information go into a person's memory of an event:
1
st
: the information obtained from an event
2
nd: the information supplied after the event Over time, the information from the two sources may be integrated that we are unable to tell from which source some specific detail is recalled. All we have is one 'memory'. (Reconstructive hypothesis)
Slide50ABC NEWS LIVE EXPERIMENT
Aired 11/10/17
The reliability of eye-witness testimony?
http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/video/expert-explains-eyewitness-testimonies-unreliable-solving-crimes-51054920
Slide51Close
How does Bartlett’s work relate to the work of Elizabeth Loftus?
Slide52The Cognitive Level of Analysis
Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process: Memory.
What lesson do you remember most from this class, this year? Why do you think that is the case?
Aim:
Do Now:
Homework:
See Agenda
Slide53II
.
Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process:
Memory
Most people take memory for granted--until they forget something. Yet the fact that we remember more often than we forget tends to lead us to overlook the underlying complexity of memory as a cognitive process.
Many important researchers contributed to what we understand about memory and how our brains store, acquire and process memories.
Memory Games
(
http://www.exploratorium.edu/memory/dont_forget/index.html
)
Slide54Short – Term Memory
Information is selected by attention from sensory memory into STM. This allows us to retain information long enough to use it.
Peterson and Peterson
(1959) have demonstrated that STM lasts approximately between
15 and 30 seconds
, unless people rehearse the material, while Miller (1956) has found that STM has a limited capacity of around 7+/-2 ‘chunks’ of information.
Slide55LTM provides the lasting retention of information, from minutes to a lifetime. Long term memory appears to have an almost
limitless capacity
. LT information seems to be encoded mainly in terms of
meaning
.
Long Term Memory
Slide56A.
The “
Multi-Store Model
”
-
Similarly to the analogy that our brain processes information similar to a
computer
,
Atkinson and
Shiffrin (1968) proposed a three-stage processing model of memory.Sensory memory short term memory long term memoryModels are based on two assumptions: 1. Memory consists of a # of separate “stores” 2. Memory processes are sequential :
attention coding rehearsal
Slide57http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vW5zAY4RhOs
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=egzvLaP3498
Slide58The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model – 1968 (Multiple-Store Model of Memory)
Multi-Store Model Song: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-vmpRKsk_nk
Slide59Only a small amount of information makes past the
sensory memory
to Short Term Memory (
STM)
. The capacity of STM is limited to around 7 items for 6-12 seconds.
2. Rehearsal is an important factor if info is to get to
Long Term
Memory (LTM)
.
3. LTM
is described as a vast storehouse of information. Memories may often be distorted when they are retrieved but we fill in the gaps as predicted by schema theory.
Slide60Criticism to Atkinson-Shiffrin
The model is too simplistic. Does not accommodate for the subdivisions of STM and LTM memory stores.
Slide61Evidence of the Multi-Store
Model of Memory
S
erial Position Effect
refers to the finding that recall accuracy varies as a function of an item's position within a list.
When asked to recall a list of items in any order (free recall), people tend to begin recall with the
end
of the list, recalling those items best (the
recency
effect). Among earlier list items, the first few items are recalled more frequently than the middle items (the primacy effect).
Slide62Graph showing the serial position effect, the vertical axis shows the percentage of words recalled, the horizontal axis shows their position in the sequence
One suggested reason for the primacy effect is that the initial items presented are most effectively stored in
long-term memory
because of the greater amount of processing devoted to them.
One suggested reason for the
recency
effect is that these items are still present in
working memory
when recall is solicited. Items that benefit from neither (the middle items) are recalled most poorly.
Slide63The “
Working Memory Model
”
Created by
Baddeley
and Hitch
(1974) in which they
proposed their ‘working memory model’ as an alternative to the short-term store in Atkinson &
Shiffrin's 'multi-store' memory model (1968). This model builds off of the multi-store model. However, they believe that STM is a single store and is broken down into many components. Attempts to describe a more accurate model of Short Term Memory (STM).The Central Executive: controlling system that monitors and coordinates the operations of other components, which are called “slave systems” - most important job is “attentional control” which is accomplished in two ways: a. Automatic level
is based on habit and controlled more or less automatically by stimuli from the env’t. b. Supervisory Attentional Level: deals w/ emergencies or creates new strategies when the old ones are no longer sufficient.
Slide64The Episodic Buffer:
the role of the buffer is to act as a temporary and passive display store until the information is needed – much like a television screen.
The Phonological Loop
:
divided into two components
a.
Articulatory
control system, or
inner voice, which can hold information in a verbal form. (ex. When you try to remember a telephone # and repeat it to yourself.) b. Phonological Store, or
inner ear. It holds speech-based material in a phonological form. The Visuospatial Sketchpad: also called the inner eye; and deals w/ visual and spatial info from either sensory memory or LTM.
Slide65The Working Memory Model(Baddeley and Hitch, 1974)
SONG: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4gg6Xd1teZ0
Slide66Evidence of Working Memory
Today we use “
dual-task techniques
” to illustrate the presence of working memory.
This is when you ask the participant to carry out a cognitive task while carrying out another and hope that the 1
st
task is “interfering the 2
nd”.
If the two tasks interfere with each other so that one or both are impaired, it is believed that both tasks use the same component of STM.
Slide67Evaluation
of the Model
It includes active storage and processing, which makes it useful for explaining a variety of cognitive tasks, more so than the multi-store model.
This model is able to explain why people are able to perform different cognitive tasks simultaneously without disruption - “multi-tasking”
Work done by
Gathercole
(2001) has given us insight of how disruption of working memory is associated with deficits in academic performance.
Ex. He says that deficits in the phonological loop lead to deficits in mathematics and reading.
Eysenck
(1988) found that indv diff. in intelligences may depend on diff in working memory.
Slide68Application & Criticism
The working memory model explains many practical observations, such as why it is easier to do two different tasks (one verbal and one visual) than two similar tasks (e.g., two visual.) However, the concept of a central executive has been criticized as inadequate and vague – Further research is being conducted.
Slide69The Cognitive Level of Analysis
Explain how biological factors affect one cognitive process:
brain damage
memory
In what ways do you think your brain impacts your memory?
Aim:
Do Now:
Homework:
See Agenda
Slide70III
.
Explain how biological factors affect one cognitive process:
brain damage
memory
Hippocampus
:
Research by Kandel found that the hippocampus is important in the formation of
explicit memories (fact based info)Case studies have shown that damage here results in the inability to form new explicit memories but still can form new implicit memories (procedural and/or emotional memories)
Slide71Amygdala
Found to play a role in the storage of
emotional
memories
According to
LeDoux
, certain memories have emotional significance and this might explain why memories based on emotional events are remembered better
.
Could give us insight into PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder) and why some have problems forgetting, because emotional memories are difficult to get rid of.
Slide72Biological Connection to Memory
The Amygdala emotional memory
The Hippocampus explicit memory
Slide73Brain Damage and Memory
1.
Clive Wearing
: he suffers from both anterograde and retrograde amnesia.
-
Anterograde amnesia
: the inability to make new memories -
Retrograde amnesia: the inability to remember old memories - MRI scans show damage to Clive’s hippocampus and some frontal regions.
Slide74Clive Wearing
“The Man with no Long Term Memory”
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vwigmktix2Y
(General - 3 minutes)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c62C_yTUyVg
(Overview of Case - 13 minutes)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9BrCBq2FY_U
(Overview of Brian - 9 minutes)
Slide752. “H.M.” (1926-2008)
was one of the most famous and important case studies to modern cognitive neuroscience and our understandings of memory.
Described by Brenda Milner and William Scoville (1957)
(1953) HM had a partial resection of his medial temporal lobe (MTL) as an attempt to stop his epileptic seizures.
Medial Temporal Lobe
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IKP6tBhM2T4
(2 minutes)
Slide76After the surgery he suffered from severe
anterograde amnesia
(
inability to make new memories after the trauma)
:
although his
working memory
and procedural memory were intact, he could not commit new events to long-term memory
. He also suffered moderate retrograde amnesia, and could not remember most events in the 3–4 -day period before surgery, and some events up to 11 years before, meaning that his amnesia was temporally graded. However, his ability to form long-term procedural memories
was still intact; thus he could, as an example, learn new motor skills, despite not being able to remember learning them.
Slide771. Craik and Lockhart (1972)
The
levels of processing framework
was presented as an alternative to theories of memory.
States that stimulus information is processed at
multiple levels
simultaneously depending upon its characteristics. Furthermore, the "deeper" the processing, the more that will be remembered.
Ex: information that involves strong visual images or many associations with existing knowledge will be processed at a deeper level. - Similarly, information that is being attended to receives more processing than other stimuli/events.
The theory also supports the finding that we remember things that are meaningful to us because this requires more processing than meaningless stimuli.
Other Theories of Memory…..
Slide78The Cognitive Level of Analysis
Discuss how Social and Cultural Influence affect one Cognitive Process.
Evaluate the extent to which the cognitive process is reliable.
cohnitive
process
Do you believe eyewitness testimony is reliable? Explain
Aim:
Do Now:
Homework:
See Agenda
Slide79V. Discuss how Social and Cultural Influence effect one Cognitive Process:
It should be of no surprise that cognition is influenced by the environment around you.
With globalization and modern technology it requires all of us to have specialized education
-
think about how much we have to learn and need to memorize from school (math, psychology, language etc.)
According to Jerome Bruner, children of any culture learn the basics of culture through schooling and daily interaction with members of the culture in which they live.
Slide80A. The role of schooling on remembering
Research has shown that memory tests done on Western cultures do not always give the same data in other regions of the world.
1. Cole & Scribner (1974):
Memory strategies in different cultures
:
Compared word recall between US and
Kpelle
people of rural Liberia.
Realized that they could not use the same words for both cultures so they started to observe daily activities of Kpelle people, so words were more relevant.compared data from school vs. non-school children in Liberia.
Slide81- Asked children to recall as many items as possible from 4 categories: utensils, clothes, tools, and vegetables.
Results
:
Children
without schooling
could not increase recall even after practicing. Remembered 10 items the first time and only 2 more after 15 practice trials
Children
with schooling learned list just as quickly as US children and used similar techniques such as “chunking
”In a later trial, the researchers presented the objects in a story (narrative). The illiterate children recalled the objects more so. Other studies confirm these results (Rogoff & Wadell, 1982) found that Mayan children could easily recall objects if put into a meaningful story format.
Slide82REVIEW SLIDE:
A Theory of Cognitive Process: Schema Theory
Created by
Frederic Bartlett
(1886-1969),
he carried out studies on
reconstructive memory
to show how humans process information using pre-existing “
schemas”. Read a Native American story “The War of the Ghosts” to 20 English participants and found that as the story was read more to them their recall of the story dropped from 330 words to about 180 and often substituted bits of the story to match previous experiences. The recalled story gradually became more Western as items such as the ‘canoe’ was changed to a ‘boat’.
The ghosts were often forgotten because they are not an important feature of Western culture. This indicates that memory is influenced by our existing knowledge, which in turn is created by the culture in which we live
Slide83REVIEW SLIDE:
Schema Theory is a cognitive process about information processing. They are “
organizational frameworks of the mind
”.
It can describe how specific knowledge is
organized
and
stored in memory so that it can be accessed and used when it is needed. One cannot see a schema inside someone else’s head, but psychologists believe it gives us insight into the mind nonetheless.
Schema theory suggests that humans are active processors of information and so when it a certain situations we use our schemas as templates dictating how to react or behave. Cognitive Schema: can be defined as
networks of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations about particular aspects of the world.
Slide84REVIEW SLIDE:
Evaluation of Schema theory
Strengths
:
It is clear that schema theory pertains to how we categorize information and interpret stories and make inferences.
It has contributed to our understanding of “
memory distortions
” (Bartlett)
Social psychologists often refer to “social schemas” in explaining the origins of prejudice and stereotyping.It supports the idea that culture can effect our way of thinking (memory).
Slide85REVIEW SLIDE:
Limitations
:
It is not clear
how
schemas are acquired in the first place and how they
actually
influence our cognitive processes.Furthermore, some say that the concept of schemas are too vague (Cohen, 1993) and thus are not useful.
Slide86VI. Reliability of one cognitive process: Memory
How reliable is memory? Recently legal systems have learned more towards DNA evidence because of the inconsistencies of memory.
“
Reconstructive memory
” allows one to explain how memory may be influenced by other factors
Frederic Bartlett
:
- his
“War of the Ghost” experiment showed how culture effects the reconstructive process of memory and how schemas influence memory recall. - Stated the more complicated the story, the more elements will be forgotten or distorted.
Slide872. Elizabeth Loftus
The most horrifying idea is that what we believe with all our hearts is not necessarily the truth.
(Loftus, 1996)
Dr. Elizabeth F. Loftus, a professor of psychology and expert researcher on the
malleability
and reliability of repressed memories, is an instrumental figure in cognitive psychology.
Slide88She has done innumerable studies of over 20,000 subjects
showing that eyewitness testimonies are often unreliable and that false memories can be triggered in up to 25 percent of people merely by suggestion or giving of incorrect post event information
(Niemark,1996).
The aim
of this study was to investigate later information, particularly famed questions, influences a witness's memory for that event. In asking her subjects to recall an event, she attempts to replicate how
eyewitnesses reconstruct their memories
Slide89She showed people film of traffic accident and quizzed them about that they saw. First, she showed her subjects a video of a car accident. Then, in her experimental groups she would either ask the participants to estimate how fast the car was going when it “
smashed
” or “
hit
.” the car.
Depending on how the question was posed, they answered differently whether they had seen glass or not.
Misinformation effect
: incorporating misinformation into ones memory of the event. Her research demonstrates a flaw in the validity of
eyewitness testimony
http://www.holah.karoo.net/loftusstudy.htm
Slide90They argue that two kinds of information go into a person's memory of an event
(Loftus & Palmer, 1974)
1
st
: is the information obtained from perceiving an event (e.g. witnessing a video of a car accident),
2nd
: is the other information supplied to us after the event (e.g. the question containing hit or smashed). Over time, the information from these two sources may be integrated in such a way that we are unable to tell from which source some specific detail is recalled. All we have is one 'memory'. This explanation is often referred to as the reconstructive hypothesis
Slide91The Cognitive Level of Analysis
Discuss the use of technology in instigating cognitive processes.
Take out your cognitive review packet and turn to question 3.7 addresses the aim questions.
Aim:
Do Now:
Homework:
See Agenda
Slide92VII. Technology & Cognitive Processes
PET scan
:
has allowed neuroscientists to develop methods to detect the signs of Alzheimer’s earlier than ever before.
- research as NYU has developed a brain-scan-based computer program that illustrates early warning signs of memory degradation in Alzheimer’s by showing diminishing metabolic activity in the hippocampus.
Slide93MRI and fMRI
: both provide 3-D pictures of brain structures.
Based on oxygen consumption, the more an area uses oxygen the more active it is.
Used to see what areas are active when cognitive processes such as reading, problem solving and memory are happening.
Even used in marketing popular products “neuromarketing”
(
ex. Clinton Kilts, Pepsi/Coke taste test @ Emory: showed that the ventral putamen was involved in selecting sodas)
See 3.7 in Cognitive Review Packet
Slide94The Cognitive Level of Analysis
Evaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive process.
To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion?
Take out your cognitive review packet and turn to questions 3.8 & 3.9 which address the two aim questions.
Aim:
Do Now:
Homework:
See Agenda
Slide95Cognition and Emotion:
Tries to answer the questions about why we easily remember some things but not others:
Famous brain researcher, Antonio
Damasio
,
explains that emotions are purely physical signals of the body which react to external stimuli
. Feelings arise when the brain interprets these emotions.
Emotions consist of
three components: Physiological changesThe person’s own subjective feelings
Associated behavior
Slide96VIII. To what extent do cognitive and
biological factors interact in emotion
The
amygdala
appears to be critical in emotional perception and memory.
Studies of animals and humans indicate that stress hormones such as adrenaline are released when strong emotions are evoked.
A. In the
Emotional Brain (1999) Joseph LeDoux described two biological pathways of emotions in the brain.
Slide97Short route
: from thalamus to amygdala
Long route
: passes via the neocortex/amygdala and hippocampus
- the amygdala receives input and projects them to areas of the brain stem that help control emotional responses such as the “
fight or flight
” response.
- According to LeDoux, it is advantageous that the amygdala is flexible in where it receives and transmit emotional information. Allows us to perceive danger quickly and further evaluate stimuli which are not threatening (think before you act)
Slide98Lazarus’s Theory of Appraisal
(Complete the reading/handout(s) provided)
Slide99C. Brown & Kulik (1977): Flashbulb theory
A
flashbulb memory
is a memory created in great detail during a personally significant event, often a shocking event of national or international importance.
They found highly emotional memories (e.g. hearing bad news) were often vividly recalled, even some time after the event.
Ex
: a great many people can remember where they were when they heard of the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001
Slide100IX: Other Cognitive Theories/Concepts:
A. Cognitive Dissonance
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
=
the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent
Festinger & Carlsmith’s
famous study ( ) developed the cognitive dissonance theory to explain the results of their experiment.
Slide101The Experiment:
First, they asked people perform a boring task (separating spools into groups of 12 and turning a square peg ¼ a turn). Then, in two experimental groups they gave participants either $1 or $20 to tell an evaluator that they enjoyed the experiment.
They found that the subjects in the $1 were more likely to
actually believe
that they enjoyed the experiment.
Explain - why that is?
Slide102B. Free Will vs. Determinism
Cognitive Psychology developed as a reaction against
behaviorism
which emphasizes determinism.
However, the cognitive approach states that a person
actively
thinks about their behavior therefore they should be able to change these
cognitions on their own free will.
Some refer to cognitive psychologists as “soft determinists”
Slide103Soft determinism
:
Thesis of determinism is true and is compatible with freedom, because freedom requires two elements: capability (“I can”) and desire (“I want to”). A free act is a voluntary act that nothing prevents me from performing.
The CLOA does address both biological and environmental influence, yet does not say that we are simply born pre-programmed or simply passive responders to our surroundings!!!
Slide104X. Cognition and Therapy
1.)
Albert Ellis'
Rational Emotive Therapy
(1973,1993)
- is a clinical application of cognitive principles blended with behavioral principles.
- This
cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) rests on the idea that inappropriate and self-defeating beliefs are the root of psychological disorders. 2.) Aaron Beck, another cognitive psychotherapist, has a similar view on therapy based on the belief that anxiety promoting patterns of thinking are what cause anxiety and depressive disorders (Beck, 1976; 1993).
Slide105What is a study or idea that contributes to our understanding of how this perspective is affected by gender?
Carol Gilligan (1936-present)
Began her work under Lawrence Kohlberg, and later would go on to criticize his moral development theory based on two criteria:
Sample were privileged males
Believed that the male reasoning was superior to female morals
She states, that males are more individualist and females are more relationship oriented. Females are more concerned with making connections and feels that society too often suppresses the expression of ‘self’.
Some consider her the founder of “feminism”
Slide106XII. Controversies and Criticisms
The largest controversy within the perspective is in assessing the validity of the approach.
Some say that lack of experimental evidence for the approach make the perspective overly simplified and theoretical.
Ecological validity
–
the validity that a principle observed in a laboratory setting has outside of that setting, in the field, in the real world.
OR
a studies ability to be generalized to the masses.
Since there is difficulty in saying what conditions are natural or normal (some field experiments may be conducted under very unusual circumstances, while laboratories are human social situations too),
Slide107Other’s praise the perspective’s ability to explain behaviors that the learning perspective cannot and for its functional explanation of psychology. Furthermore the cognitive approach is particularly strong when it is combined with ideas from other approaches.
http://cranepsych.com/Psych/Cognitive_pers_validity.pdf
Slide108XIII. Methods Used
Laboratory experimentation
-Clinical interviews
-Verbal protocols
-Ethical considerations
Easiest Method to write about:
Lab experimentation
Slide109Laboratory Experiments
-
used as the primary method of research for cognitive psychologists
-
Strength
: is that all variables can be controlled
-
Limitation: suffers from ecological validity and artificiality
Brain Technology: - today, fMRI and CT scans offer the possibilities to look into brain processes within the ‘active’ brain, giving us insight into the workings of the mind.
Slide110XIV. Evaluation/Analysis of this Approach
Strengths
:
- It investigates many areas of behavior ignored by the learning perspective, using rigorous scientific methods.
-Explanations at a functional, psychological level rather than a reductionist approach.
-It has combined with other perspectives to strengthen its explanations - e.g. neuropsychology.
Slide111Weaknesses
:
- Overly simplistic - computer model disregards the complexity of human behavior.
-Overly hypothetical
-Objectification of its participants
-Question of mundane vs. psychological reality
-Sampling is YAVIS (Eyseneck)
Young, attractive, verbal, intelligent, successful, the syndrome of personal qualities that counselors, therapists, and people in general supposedly find most appealing in their clients or associates