© 2013 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. - PowerPoint Presentation

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© 2013 JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. - PPT Presentation

1 THE EARTH THROUGH TIME TENTH EDITION H A R O L D L L E V I N Chapter 17 Human Origins 2013 JOHN WILEY amp SONS INC ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 2 Introduction Humans Homo sapiens meaning thinking man or intelligent human appeared during the latter part of Cenozoic during P ID: 525841

2013 amp wiley john amp 2013 john wiley sons rights reserved homo years 000 humans africa modern primates erectus

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Slide1

THE EARTH THROUGH TIME

TENTH EDITION

H A R O L D L. L E V I NSlide2

Chapter 17

Human Origins

2Slide3

Introduction

Humans, Homo sapiens, meaning "thinking man" or "intelligent human," appeared during the latter part of Cenozoic, during Pleistocene.Homo sapiens share many characteristics with the other members of the Order Primates, including basic body structure and biochemistry.

3Slide4

Characteristics of Homo sapiens

Humans are distinct from the other primates : Larger, more complex brain Stand and walk erect due to structural modifications to vertebral column, legs & pelvis

Flatter face

Teeth less robust

Greater manual dexterity, leading to ability to manufacture and use sophisticated tools

Greater intelligence, leading to language and culture

4Slide5

Order Primates

Primates are placental mammals. They have five digits, which is a primitive, non-specialized characteristic. They have not developed hoofs, horns, antlers, or trunks, unlike some other groups of placental mammals, and so they remain structurally generalized

compared with other mammalian groups.

5Slide6

Adaptations of the Primates

Rounded head shapeProgressive enlargement of the brain

Shortening and flattening of the face

Unspecialized teeth

Eyes are close-set and positioned toward front of face.

Binocular stereoscopic vision

. Ability to judge distance.

6Slide7

Adaptations of the Primates

Modifications of the hand - opposable thumb Mobility of the forearm, so hand can be turned

Modifications of the thorax for upright posture

Forelimbs and hind limbs diverged in form and function

7Slide8

Right hand of the Eocene prosimian

Europolemus. The hand shows key primate characteristics: broad fingertips and an opposable thumb (the thumb can be touched to each of the other fingertips).

Right hand of a human (palm up).

The human hand is not used in locomotion. It can be used to manipulate small objects between the fingers and thumb.

The Opposable Thumb

FIGURE 17-2

8Slide9

Types of Modern Primates

Prosimians - tree shrews, lemurs, lorises, and tarsiers Anthropoidea - monkeys, apes, and humans

Monkeys

New World monkeys

Old World monkeys

Hominoidea

or anthropoid apes

9Slide10

Prosimians

Tree shrews, lemurs, lorises, and tarsiers Tree shrews and lemurs have long snouts and eyes on the sides of the head. Most digits have claws.

Tarsiers have relatively flat face, close-set eyes for stereoscopic vision, and fingers and toes have nails rather than claws.

lemurs

tarsier

10Slide11

Not involved in evolution of humans

Includes spider monkey, capuchin, and marmoset.

Prehensile tails

Oldest fossils are Oligocene from South America

New World Monkeys

(

A) Art Wolfe/Photo Researchers, Inc.,

(B)

Jany

Sauvanet

/Photo Researchers, Inc

(

Gregory G

Dimjian

/Photo Researchers,

Inc

11Slide12

Old World Monkeys

Baboons, mandrills, macaques, rhesus monkeys, Barbary apes

Nostrils close together and directed downward, as in humans

Tail not prehensile

12Slide13

Macaque Baboons Barbary apes

Old World Monkeys

(left) Richard T.

Nowitz

/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (center) Tom McHugh/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (right) Len Rue, Jr./Photo Researchers, Inc.

13Slide14

Hominoidea or Anthropoid Apes

Tail-less primates

Gibbons, orangutans, chimpanzees,

bonobos

, gorillas, and humans

Modern species evolved from same ancestral stock that produced humans

DNA evidence indicates divergence from human line 5-7 million years ago.

DNA of chimpanzees and humans is 98.4% similar.

Similarities in the proteins hemoglobin and

myoglobin

indicate that the chimpanzee is our closest relative.

14Slide15

Hominoidea or Anthropoid Apes

Three families:Hylobatidae - Gibbons The most primitive branch of tail-less apes.

Pongidae

- Orangutans, chimpanzees, gorillas, and bonobos.

Hominidae

- Humans

15Slide16

Anthropoid Apes

Gibbon



Gorilla

Orangutan



Chimpanzees



(top left) David Maitland/Getty Images, Inc.; (top right) Tom McHugh/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (bottom left) Andrew

Dernie

/Getty Images, Inc.; (bottom right)

Photodisc

/Getty Images, Inc.)

16Slide17

Prosimian Vanguard

Earliest fossil record for primates is Purgatorius, known from the Upper Cretaceous Hell Creek Formation at Purgatory Hill, Montana. The earliest primates lived during the time of the last of the dinosaurs.

The

Paleocene Plesiadapis

is the only primate genus other than

Homo

to inhabit both the Old World and the New World. This suggests that the continents were not fully separated by Paleocene.

17Slide18

Prosimian Vanguard

During Eocene, primates underwent: Reduction in length of face Increase in brain size Movement of eyes to more forward position Development of a grasping big toe

18Slide19

Prosimian Vanguard

Tarsiers and lemurs were abundant and widely distributed on Northern Hemisphere continents during Eocene. When the climate cooled during Oligocene, the primates virtually disappeared from North America. They were forced southward into Asia, Africa, and the East Indies.

19Slide20

Early Anthropoids

Anthropoids are the higher primates - monkeys, apes, and humans

Early anthropoid fossils are found in

Oligocene

rocks (33-34

m.y

. old) at Fayum, Egypt.

Aegyptopithecus

robust arboreal primates with a monkey-like tail and limbs, and eyes on the front of the skull.

The

prosimian

-anthropoid transition had occurred by Oligocene.

Oligocene ape, Aegyptopithecus

20Slide21

Primate Evolution

During Miocene (23 - 5 m.y. ago), plate tectonics affected primate evolution. Africa and Arabia drifted northward and collided with Eurasia. This changed the circulation in the Tethys Sea and the climate in East Africa became cooler and drier.

Grass-covered plains replaced tropical forests.

21Slide22

Primate Evolution

As a result of the change in climate and vegetation, adaptive radiation occurred among the Old World primates. During late Miocene, primates appeared that gave rise to the

pongids

(orangutan, chimpanzee, and gorilla) and the

hominids

(human family).

A new group, the

dryomorphs

(formerly dryopithecines) appeared during Miocene.

22Slide23

The Dryomorphs - Proconsul

Proconsul, discovered by the Leakeys in 1948 in Kenya, was a

dryomorph

or a

dryomorph

ancestor.

It had ape-like skull, jaws, and teeth. It had monkey-like long trunk, arms and finger bones.

Middle Miocene

descendants of

Proconsul

are probably ancestral to modern African apes and the first hominids, the australopithecines.

Miocene

drymorph

Proconsul

Harold Levin

23Slide24

Primate Evolution

By about 18 million years ago, Africa collided with Eurasia and primates migrated into Eurasia and diversified. These primates include the following Miocene apes, called

ramamorphs

, which are considered to be ancestral stock for both later apes and hominids:

Ramapithecus

Sivapithecus

Gigantipithecus

24Slide25

Primate Evolution

Interpreting the primate family tree is complicated. There are many splits and dead ends. The story must be reinterpreted each time new types of fossil primates are discovered.

25Slide26

Rich Fossil Sites of Africa

Rich hominin fossil sites in East Africa. Beds of volcanic ash between fossil beds facilitate radioisotope dating in this region, and dry conditions limit the amount of vegetation covering bone beds.

26Slide27

Australopithicines

Australopithecus africanus was discovered in 1924 by Raymond Dart in South Africa. Since then, many specimens have been discovered in East Africa, particularly in Olduvai Gorge

Mary and Louis Leakey.

East African fossil sites have yielded hundreds of hominid bones, documenting human evolution over the past 4 million years.

Interbedded

volcanic ash

allows

radiometric dating

of the hominid fossils using potasium-argon method.

27Slide28

Australopithecus africanus

skull, from the Transvaal region, South Africa

28Slide29

Oldest hominid fossils are 6-7 million years old, from Chad, Sahelanthropus tchadensis.

Prior to this fairly recent discovery, the oldest know hominids were 5.8-5.2 million years old. Ardipithecus ramidus from Ethopia. Australopithecus anamensis

lived from 4.2 to 3.9 m.y. ago. It appears to be an evolutionary intermediate between

Ardipithecus ramidus

and

Australopithecus afarensis

or "Lucy."

Australopithicines

29Slide30

"Lucy" Australopithecus afarensis

Discovered by Donald Johanson in 1974 and nicknamed "Lucy."

Lucy was a 3.5 foot tall

erect-walking hominid

in East Africa about 3.5 million years ago. Posture is determined from analysis of pelvic and leg bones.

Resent excavations for

Australopithecus

afarensis

have yielded a skeleton of a male that was about 5.5 feet tall.

30Slide31

"Lucy" Australopithecus afarensis

Further evidence of bipedalism (walking upright on two feet) of australopithecines is the discovery of

footprints and a trackway

in 3.2 m.y. volcanic ash layers (a Pliocene tuff) at Laetoli, eastern Africa.

Australopithicine

dentition

(tooth structure) was

essentially human. Cranial (brain) capacity was less

than that of modern humans. (600 cm³ vs. 1400-1600³ in modern humans).

31Slide32

Australopithecus afarensis

Evidence for bipedalism. (A) Footprints probably made by Australopithecus

afarensis

about 3.5 million years ago as a pair of these

hominins

walked across wet volcanic ash. The footprints document the ability of hominins to walk on two legs. The tracks were discovered in 1976 by Mary Leakey. (B) A female and male stroll the Late Pliocene landscape of eastern Africa, leaving telltale footprints in the ash, much as vacationers leave footprints on a wet beach.

32Slide33

Two types of Australopithicines

Gracile - Smaller, lighter-bodied with smaller teeth. Includes Australopithecus afarensis (Lucy).

This group is transitional to genus Homo.

Robust

- Larger, heavy-bodied with larger teeth.

Includes

Australopithecus boisei

(sometimes called

Paranthropus boisei

) and

Australopithecus robustus

(sometimes called

Paranthropus robustus

). Both are evolutionary side branches.

33Slide34

Opinions differ as to whether the boisei and robustus

species should be included in genus Australopithecus. The current consensus in the scientific community is that they should be placed in a separate genus, Paranthropus, which appears to have developed from the australopithecines.

The robust australopithecines are now reclassified as belonging to genus

Paranthropus

Two types of

Australopithicines

34Slide35

New discover near Johannesburg, South Africa named Australopithecus sediba

Skeletal remains of the young male and an adult female.Intermediate between australopithecine and genus Homo. Australopithecine traits – small brain size, shoulder bones, and long arms.

Homo traits – modern hands and less flared pelvis

Transition between

Australopithicines

and

Homo

35Slide36

Timelines for Pliocene and Pleistocene

hominins.

36Slide37

Genus Homo

The genus Homo arose nearly 2.5 million years ago when australopithecines evolved into the ancestors of humans, Homo ergaster, also called Homo habilis

Homo rudolfensis

and

Homo ergaster

or Homo habilis lived in Africa around 2 million years ago.

Homo rudolfensis

37Slide38

Genus Homo

The evolutionary transition may have been stimulated by the change to a cooler, drier climate about 2.7 million years ago.

Rainforests were replaced by grasslands.

In this environment, selective pressures may have led to

bipedalism

, greater

intelligence

, and the ability to make

stone tools

. Stone tools are found with fossils of

Homo

38Slide39

Genus Homo

Genus Homo has a larger cranial capacity and some smaller teeth, but no striking anatomical differences.

Homo erectus

arose from

Homo ergaster or Homo habilis

The opening at the base of the skull, where the spinal cord joins the brain, called the foramen magnum, is in a more forward position in

Homo erectus

, indicating that it had a more erect posture.

39Slide40

The Homo erectus Stage

Homo erectus fossils include: A 1.8 million years jaw in the Caucasus Mountains of Georgia

A 1.5 million years complete skeleton from east Africa near Lake Turkana (long-limbed, tall and slender with a remarkably modern skeleton)

A 750,000 year old skull cap from Olduvai Gorge

40Slide41

Homo erectus lived in the early to middle Pleistocene

Homo erectus is the first hominid known to have moved from Africa into Eurasia. A rapid increase in brain size had begun in Homo erectus. Homo erectus

was a

toolmaker

and

hunter

. It is unclear whether they had language, wore clothes, built dwellings or used fire.

The Homo erectus Stage

41Slide42

Homo erectus skull characteristics

Cranial capacity was 775 - 1300 cm³, slightly less than (or overlapping the lower range of) that of modern humans. Skull was rather massive and flat Heavy, bony supraorbital (brow) ridges

Sloping forehead

The jaw jutted forward at the toothline, a condition called

prognathous

The nose was broad and flat

The teeth were robust but essentially modern

Lacked a jutting chin

42Slide43

Homo erectus and Tools

Progressive improvement in tool-making from stone during the Pleistocene. The crude stone tools of the Early Pleistocene (bottom) were produced by australopithecines. Homo erectus produced the better-shaped tools of the Middle Pleistocene. The Upper Paleolithic tools included carefully chipped blades and points.

FIGURE

17-26, Harold Levin

43Slide44

Homo erectus and Fire

A group of Homo erectus people using fire to make tools while others return from hunting.

44Slide45

The Neandertals

Late Pleistocene hominids are called Neandertals.

Neandertals

may be a subspecies

Homo sapiens

, designated as Homo sapiens neandertalensis.

45Slide46

Neandertal Skull Characteristics

Brain size equal to or larger than that of modern humans Heavy supraorbital ridge

(brow ridge)

Prognathous

(face extends forward at toothline) - but not as much as

Homo erectus

. No chin - but lower jaw not as receding as that of Homo erectus

Enlarged nasal cavity (for warming cold inhaled air)

46Slide47

Neandertal Skull Characteristics

Skull of a classic Neandertal.

From the

Homo erectus

stage of the Middle Pleistocene.

Neandertals

roamed central Europe as recently as 28,000 years ago.

This is indicated by the radiocarbon date for this

Neandertal

jawbone from a cave site in Croatia.

Harold Levin

47Slide48

Neandertal Characteristics

Neandertal skeleton (A) assembled from actual skeletal bones compared with skeleton of a modern human. (B) The

Neandertal’s

flaring rib cage provided space for large lungs, needed for a high level of activity.

Reconstruction of a Neandertal family group.

48Slide49

When Did the Neandertals

Live?The Neandertals can be divided into three groups. Early Neanderthals, that lived approximately 250,000 to 130,000 years ago

Neanderthals that existed during the transition to the Upper Paleolithic, approximately 130,000 to 45,000 years ago

Late-surviving Neanderthals after 45,000 years ago, up until about 28,000 years ago.

49Slide50

Neandertals and Modern Humans

In central Europe, Neandertals coexisted with early modern humans for thousands of years.

Neandertal skeletons were somewhat more robust than human skeletons.

50Slide51

Neandertals and Modern Humans

Bones discovered in 2002 show a mix of human and Neandertal traits, suggesting interbreeding.

Skull comparison.

(A)

Neandertal

. (B) Skull from a rock shelter on the slope of Mount Carmel (Israel) that appears to show both

Neandertal

and Cro-Magnon features. (C) Cro-Magnon. The Mount Carmel skull is intermediate in both form and age between

Neandertal

and Cro-Magnon.

Harold Levin

51Slide52

Neandertal Culture

Neandertals hunted cold-tolerant mammals including cave bears, mammoths, wooly rhinos, reindeer, bison, and aurochs (a type of cattle).

They manufactured a variety of

stone tools

They used

fire

, which provided

light

in caves, gave

warmth

, allowed the

thawing and cooking

of food, and provided

protection from predators.

52Slide53

Neandertal Culture

They constructed shelters or houses of skins, sticks and bones.

They

cared for the sick

They

buried artifacts with the dead, suggesting a belief in an afterlife.

Musical instruments

have also been found in association with Neandertal remains, such as a flute made from a bone, dating to between 82,000 and 43,000 years ago.

53Slide54

Little People of the South Pacific

A new species of human was discovered on the Indonesian island of Flores in 2004, Homo floresiensis. An excavation produced the remains of seven small individuals.

The adults were only 3 ft (1 m) tall.

54Slide55

Little People of the South Pacific

Homo floresiensis lived as recently as 13,000 years ago, at the same time as both the Neandertals and modern humans. They hunted, used fire, and made stone tools.

The ancestry of this species is uncertain, however,

Homo erectus

probably reached the island about 800,000 years ago, and evolved into a smaller species as a result of living on an island with limited food and few large predators.

55Slide56

The Earliest Humans

Fossil evidence from along the Omo River in southern Ethiopia shows that modern humans, Homo sapiens, lived in Africa as much as 195,000 years ago, according to an article published in February 2005

Previously, modern humans were thought to have appeared in Africa about 160,000 years ago

Humans appeared in Africa many thousands of years before our species appeared on any other continent

56Slide57

The Earliest Humans

There appears to have been a time gap between the appearance of the modern human skeleton and modern types of behavior resulting in cultural artifacts.

Stone knife blades appeared between 200,000 and 50,000 years ago.

Other types of cultural artifacts, however, appeared just 50,000 years ago.

57Slide58

Out of Africa

Humans left Africa between about 40,000 and 50,000 years ago, and appear to have taken culture with them, including things such as bone carving, tools such as harpoons, jewelry and ornamentation, artwork, and arrowheads.

58Slide59

Cro-Magnon

About 34,000 years ago during a glacial advance, humans closely resembling modern Europeans moved into the area occupied by the Neandertals, and eventually replaced them. They are Homo sapiens, and are called

Cro-Magnon.

59Slide60

Cro-Magnon

Characteristics of Cro-Magnon: Mostly taller than Neandertals More vertical forehead Jutting chin

Cro-Magnon skull, 30,000 years old

60Slide61

Cro-Magnon Culture

Cro-Magnon continued and further developed the cultural traditions of the Neandertals:Manufactured a greater variety of stone tools

Painted pictures of animals in caves

Carved and sculpted

images of women and animals from bone or ivory

Made and wore

jewelry

Elaborately buried their dead (such as burying hunters with their weapons)

Practiced rituals and believed in afterlife

Hunted and gathered edible plants

61Slide62

Cro-Magnon Culture

Prehistoric art by Late Pleistocene Homo sapiens. (A) “The Venus of Willendorf”—probably a fertility figure—found in Austria. (B) A tool called a thong-

stropper

, used either to work thongs made from hide or to straighten arrow shafts. The tool is made from an antler and is intricately carved.

62Slide63

Beginnings of Recorded History

About 15,000 -10,000 years ago, humans began to: Domesticate animals

Cultivate plants

Produce more highly developed tools

Make

utensils of fired clay

Develop permanent settlements

Use

language

Develop

writing

With the development of writing, the era of recorded history began.

63Slide64

Coming to America

Humans in the Americas are called Paleoindians. It is not definitely known when the first human set foot in America.

The widely held view is that humans arrived in the Americas from Asia, crossing the

Bering Land Bridge

between Asia and Alaska between 10,000 and 25,000 years ago (to perhaps 30,000 years or more), during a glaciation which lowered sea levels.

64Slide65

Pre-Clovis People

Stone weapon points and tools in Meadowcroft Shelter, western Pennsylvania, appear to be 19,600 years old.Some South American sites are 13,000 years old or older.

65Slide66

Arrival of the Clovis People

Stone tools of the Clovis culture, about 13,000 years old, are known from Alaska to South America. They occupied sites in the Americas for over 2,000 years.

The Clovis people dominated for several thousand years, and then a new group, the

Folsom people

took up residence in North America about 11,000 years ago.

66Slide67

Human Population – 7 billion and growing

Human survival may depend on our ability to slow the rate of population increase.

67Slide68

What lies ahead?

Humans have existed for about the past 2 million years out of the Earth’s 4.6 billion year history. Will humans match the Dinosaurs lineage of 140 million years?Global climates and sea level will be influenced by both human (green house gases) and natural (

Milankovitch

cycles) processes.

The Earth is still tectonically active with the Atlantic ocean basin continuing to widen, Africa moving north to collide with Europe, and the Baja Peninsula on an Alaskan cruise.

In 7 billion years the Sun will expand as part of the red giant phase and engulf the Earth.

68Slide69

IMAGE CREDITS