active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainable TYPES OF PROBLEMS Problems of inducing structure relations among numbers words symbols ideas Problems of arrangement ID: 661328
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Slide1
PROBLEM SOLVING
Problem solving
: active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainableSlide2
TYPES OF PROBLEMS
Problems of inducing structure
: relations among numbers, words, symbols, ideas
Problems of arrangement
: arranging parts of a problem to fit some criterion---solved through
insight
: sudden discovery of the correct solution following incorrect attempts based on trial and errorSlide3
TYPE OF PROBLEMS
Problems of transformation
: carry out a sequence of transformations in order to reach a specific goalSlide4
WELL-DEFINED VS. ILL-DEFINED PROBLEMS
Well-defined problems
: problems in which the initial state, the goal state, and the constraints are clearly specified
Ill-defined problems
: one or more elements among the initial state and the constraints are unclearly specifiedSlide5
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE PROBLEM SOLVING
Irrelevant info
Functional fixedness
: the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use
Mental set
: when people persist in using problem solving strategies that have worked in the past
Unnecessary constraintsSlide6
APPROACHES TO PROBLEM SOLVING
Problem Space
: the set of possible pathways to a solution considered by the problem
Algorithm
: methodical, step-by-step procedure for trying all alternatives
Like trial and error
Heuristic
: a guiding principle used in solving problems or making decisions
A “rule of thumb”Slide7
TYPES OF HEURISTICS
Forming
subgoals
: intermediate steps
Working backward
: easy w/problem w/well specified end-point
Searching for analogies
Changing the representation of the problem
: change the way you look at a problemSlide8
CULTURE, COGNITIVE STYLE, AND PROBLEM SOLVING
Field dependence-independence
: tendency to rely primarily on external versus internal frames of reference when orienting yourself in space
Field dependent rely on external frames of reference
Field independent can restructure problem more easilySlide9
DECISION MAKING: CHOICES AND CHANCESSlide10
DECISION MAKING
DEF: evaluating alternatives and making choices among them
Theory of bounded rationality
: asserts that people tend to use simple strategies in decision making that focuses on only a few facets of available options and often result in “irrational” decisions that are less than optimalSlide11
MAKING CHOICES: SELECTING AN ALTERNATIVE
Decisions involve choices about preferences
Additive strategy
: list attributes that influence a decision
Compensatory decision models
: allow attractive attributes to compensate for unattractive attributes
Or could use a:
elimination by aspects
strategy
Noncompensatory
decision models
: do not allow some attributes to compensate for others
Used when more options and factors are added to a decision taskSlide12
TAKING CHANCES: FACTORS WEIGHED IN RISKY DECISIONS
Risky decision making
: making choices under conditions of uncertainty
Expected value
: do you expect to gain or lose
Subjective utility
: is it personally worth it to you
Subjective probability
: sometimes you need to rely on your personal estimates of probabilitiesSlide13
HEURISTICS IN JUDGING PROBABILITIES
Availability heuristic
: involves basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease of with which relevant instances come to mind
Recalling specific instances of an eventSlide14
HEURISTICS IN JUDGING PROBLEMS
Representativeness heuristic
: basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that eventSlide15
TENDENCY TO IGNORE BASE RATES
People underestimate risks or probabilities
“It won’t happen to me”Slide16
CONJUNCTION OF FALLACY
DEF: when people estimate that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening aloneSlide17
ALTERNATIVE OUTCOMES EFFECT
DEF: when people’s belief about whether an outcome will occur changes depending on how alternative outcomes are distributed, even though the summed probability of the alternative outcomes is held constant