Getting along across cultures: cultural values, - PowerPoint Presentation

Slide1

Getting along across cultures: cultural values, communication and conflict styles, face, and relationship management

Rebecca L. Oxford, Ph.D

.

I-TESOL

Oct. 18, 2014Slide2

Getting along across cultures

This

exciting presentation

takes

us on a cultural journey with four main stops.

Our

first stop is the realm of

cultural values

, especially those of individualist cultures (for instance, most of Western Europe and North America) and collectivist cultures (for example, most of Asia and South America

).

The

second landmark on our journey is

communication styles

, which vary drastically across cultures, resulting in confusions that are then addressed by different

conflict styles

. Slide3

Getting along across cultures

Next

on our journey we visit the strange and sometimes amazing phenomenon known as

face

,

or the honor and respect that a person holds in the eyes of others. Some cultures prize face above everything else, while other cultures are less concerned.

Our

journey then brings us to

cross-cultural

relationship management principles

,

which help us manage relationship conflicts and forge strong bonds regardless of cultural differences.

By

the close of our journey, we have become experts on getting along across cultures.Slide4

What is the main difference between these two?

What percentage of the world’s cultures fall into each category?Slide5

Collectivist vs. Individualist

Triandis

(1995) estimated that 70% of the world’s cultures are collectivist, and the other 30% are individualist. Slide6

Strongly or Somewhat Collectivist

(

in relation to the world mean of 43)

Guatemala

6; Ecuador 8; Panama 11; Venezuela 12; Colombia 13; Indonesia and Pakistan 14 (tie); Costa Rica 15; Peru and Trinidad 16 (tie); Taiwan 17; South Korea 18; El Salvador 19; Bangladesh, China, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam, and West Africa 20 (tied); Chile 23; Hong Kong 25; Malaysia 26; East Africa and Portugal 27 (tie); Bulgaria, Mexico, and Romania 30 (tie); Philippines 32; Greece 35; Arab World and Brazil 38 (tie); Jamaica and Russia 39 (tie

)

Hofstede

, 2009

 Slide7

Strongly or Somewhat Individualist

(

in relation to the world mean of 43)

United

States

91; Australia 90;

United Kingdom

89; Canada, Hungary, and the Netherlands 80 (tie); New Zealand 79; Italy 76; Belgium 75; and Denmark 74; France and Sweden 71 (tie); Ireland 70; Norway 69; Switzerland 68; Germany 67; South Africa 65; Finland 63; Estonia, Luxembourg, and Poland 60 (tie); Malta 59; Czech Republic 58;

Austria

55; Israel 54; Spain

51

Hofstede

, 2009Slide8

Collectivist Cultural Values

Collectivist

cultures focus on the person as part of a social group.

Collectivist cultures are comprised of strong, tight in-groups, such as extended families, in which people participate from birth.

These in-groups closely nurture, protect, and guide their participants, while in return expecting long-term loyalty from the participants. Slide9

Collectivist Cultural Values

Group

is more important than the

individual

Harmony

Interdependence

F

ilial

piety (deference to elders)

Long-term, cohesive relationships

Loyalty

to and emotional dependence on the group, which in turn cares for the well-being of the individual

The

well-known Japanese personality trait of

amae

reflects an accepted dependence on an older, protective

person

People

in

highly collectivist

cultures seek advice from elders or others in the

in-group

before making major decisions

Less concern for privacySlide10
Slide11

Collectivist Cultural Values

If

a given individual seems to garner too much attention based on excellent performance or other individual factors, social forces must restrain him or her (“the nail that stands up must be hammered down

”)

Credit or

blame for a project is attributed to the group, rather than the

individual

If

one member of a team instead of the whole team receives an

honor

, this situation can be humiliating or upsetting to the rest of the

team Slide12

12

Some Values And Beliefs

in Many Collectivist CulturesSlide13

Formality and ritual

Fatalism

Priority

on personal

relationships

Eloquence and

indirectness

13

Collectivist Cultural Values Slide14

Interdependent Self-Construal in Collectivist Cultures

Source: Adapted by Rebecca L. Oxford from Markus and

Kitayama

(1991)Slide15

Individualist Cultural Values

Individualist

cultures center on the person as a separate, unique individual.

Individualist cultures focus on the individual person rather than the group.

In individualist cultures, comparatively loose ties connect individuals, who are expected to take care of themselves and their immediate families. Slide16

Individualist Cultural Values

The individual is independent

, unique, and special

Personal rights and needs, such as privacy

Self-reliance, autonomy, and personal responsibility

High competition, less cooperation

Can-do attitude, anything is possible!

Relationships

Many

interpersonal connections of short

duration

L

oose

, wide networks among people, unlike the long-term, cohesive relationships found in collectivist cultures

.Slide17
Slide18

Individualist Cultural Values

Credit or blame for a project is attributed to the individual, rather than the group

Individual task completion an d achievement are m ore important than relationships

The

value of equal opportunity for individuals is espoused by certain individualist cultures, but these cultures also promote other values that might contradict equal

opportunity

Each individual

is responsible for finding or creating his or her own opportunities, e.g., for an education or a

career

If opportunities

do not occur, the individual is somehow at fault for not trying hard enough to find or generate

them Slide19

19

Some Values and Beliefs

in Many Individualist Cultures

Belief in efficiency becomes so strong that it becomes another CULTURAL VALUE

Not the same in all cultures!Slide20

Individualist Cultural ValuesSlide21

Independent Self-Construal in Individualist Cultures

Source: Adapted by Rebecca L. Oxford from Markus and

Kitayama

(1991)Slide22

VALUE CLASH!What happens in a situation in which people from collectivist and individualist cultures have to work together? How do their values clash?If you were in charge, how could you help them overcome such a clash?Slide23

High-context communication is largely indirect, with much of the message unsaid and with many meanings and values implicitly shared by others in that culture – but not by outsiders.

High-Context

Communication

(Collectivist Cultures)Slide24

High-Context Communication

(Collectivist Cultures)

Most

of the meaning is

not communicated through

the words themselves

Meaning is communicated through . . .

facial

expression,

posture

,

eye

contact,

p

hysical context

tone

of voice,

s

tatus

, and

eloquence

(Hall, 1976

)Slide25

Typical high-context communication:Eloquent phrases and politeness rituals are expected

Lots

of time given for

introductory relationship-building, while simultaneously assessing the social characteristics of the other party.

Decisions focus

on face-to-face relationships, often around a central authority

figure

Collaborative solutions

to

problems, not focused on the individual

Many details left out (only implied or metaphorically stated)

Disagreement often not stated openly

High-Context

Communication

(Collectivist Cultures)Slide26

High-Context Communication

(Collectivist Cultures)

Based on the idea that truth emerges nonlinearly, without necessitating consistency or firm logic

Dialectical thinking, or the acceptance of cognitive dissonance (presence of simultaneously incongruous ideas), is more frequent in high-context communicators than low-context communicators

Low-context (individualist) communicators often become impatient with high-context (collectivist) communicators or think they are being deceptiveSlide27

Low-Context Communication (Individualist Cultures)

In

low-context communication, most of the information is in the explicit code, i.e., is openly expressed

No need for

many contextual cues from tradition, the physical environment, nonverbal behavior, social status, or family background (Hall, 1976).

Decisions

are

largely made on the basis of facts rather than

feelings

Discussions are expected to lead to

action Slide28

Low-Context Communication (Individualist Cultures)

Key information is “out on the table”

Facts rather than feelings

Logical presentation, yes-no thinking

No patience for extraneous eloquence, lengthy formalities, or circular arguments!

Belief that communication should be concise, clear, direct, brief, orderly (Grice’s principle)

Often found in legalistic cultures, where knowledge is transferable, external, codified, public, and accessible (e.g., U.S., U.K.)

Based on the idea that truth is rational

Low-context communication

s

eems rude, domineering, aggressive, and unrefined to high-context communicatorsSlide29

COMMUNICATION CLASH!Assume that you are in a group in which there are high-context and low-context communicators. What are the major conflicts that might occur?How could you help resolve these conflicts?Slide30

Different Cultures Use Different Conflict StylesSlide31

Which Cultures (Individualist or Collectivist) Use Which Conflict Styles and When?

Competing

Collaborating

Compromising

Accommodating

AvoidingSlide32

FaceOne of the most frequent and significant obstacles to positive cross-cultural relations is losing face or causing others to lose face. Slide33

What is face?Your self-image based on what others think of you (and vice versa: their self-image depending on what you think of them)Credibility, honor, or positive image in the eyes of others

Respectability and/or deference a person or country can claim from others

In a word,

face = HONOR

The

opposite

of face is

HUMILIATION or SHAME

33

Face Slide34

You can lose face when someone else . . .Refuses your invitationSays something bad about you

Disregards your status

Forces you to give up a cherished value

Forces you to make an unnecessary concession

Knows you have failed to achieve goals

Reveals your personal inadequacy

Attacks a valued relationship

Someone else loses face when you do these things to him or her

This

can be done at the level of groups or nations

34

FaceSlide35

Face in collectivist, high-context cultures (Africa, Far East, Middle East, Latin America): Morality is often related to group shame (or individual shame in reference to the group)Honor is very important

Shame

is directly

tied to face

Maintaining face or honor is a key to life

35

Face in Collectivist CulturesSlide36

Face in Collectivist Cultures

In collectivist cultures, face plays a more prominent role than it does in individualist cultures (Ting-Toomey, 2005).

In

fact, maintaining face or honor is a key to understanding collectivist cultures, which typically possess tight social hierarchies, emphasize shame, and link face to morality. Slide37

Doing anything that harms the group mission or group solidarityNot following relevant gender-related customs Using gestures that are offensive

Dressing unacceptably

Losing temper in public

Not using the appropriate greetings (words, handshake style, etc.)

Not learning customs for gifts or hospitality

Constantly rejecting dinner invitations

Not showing gratitude for hospitality

Saying negative things about people

Being overly direct

Making fun of men holding hands in certain collectivist cultures

37

Face-Threatening Actions in Collectivist

C

ulturesSlide38

Face in individualist, low-context cultures (U.S., many other Western cultures): Morality is related to individual, personal guilt, not shame

You can lose face through doing something that makes you feel guilty, like performing poorly in a game

LOSS OF FACE IN A GAME SITUATION



Face

is

usually less

personally

important than in high-context

cultures, though it arises sometimes

When dealing

internationally, face remains important

to individualist cultures!

Individualist leaders do not want to lose face or have their countries lose face

38

Face in Individualist CulturesSlide39

Face in Individualist Cultures

Self-face

orientation

is more prevalent in individualist cultures.

Oetzel

and Ting-Toomey (2003) found that a concern about maintaining one’s own face was associated positively with the dominating conflict

style,

which is often attributed to individualist cultures.

During

a conflict, people from

i

ndividualist

cultures frequently maintain their own face through directness, with the goal of winning (

Culpach

&

Metts

, 1994).

Very

high levels of directness can result in acts that are perceived by people from

collectivist cultures

as

face-threatening

asking

too many personal questions,

being too demanding, stating

feelings in a too-direct

way

giving

brutally honest feedback that might undermine others’ dignity. Slide40

Face in Individualist Cultures

After

a conflict emerges, people from individualist cultures frequently use

restorative self-face strategies

, such as excuses, justifications, apologies,

humor

, direct aggression, and passive aggression (see Brown, 1977;

Culpach

&

Metts

, 1994). Slide41

For Preventing or Managing Conflicts . . .

Collectivist and individualist cultures need to understand the others’ cultural values

Clashes are not just about politics and power; they are often about cultural values

Reach out to the other culture while honoring that culture’s values as much as possibleSlide42

For Preventing or Managing Conflicts . . .High-context and low-context communicators need to understand each other

Communication style is important

Reach out to another culture using that culture’s communication style as much as possible, including during negotiationsSlide43

43

Use

c

ognitive

empathy

across cultures

Cognitive empathy

is an interpretation

in which you intentionally try to see a situation, action, or person through the eyes of another

culture.

When did you use cognitive empathy most recently?

For Preventing or Managing Conflicts . . . Slide44

Become an informal “cultural anthropologist”Find a trustworthy cultural informantObserve cultural dimensions in

action

Ask to hear stories and myths

Take

notes

Have informal conversations about

the culture

Ask yourself “What do I need to understand?

Read everything you can

!

Have you been an informal cultural anthropologist?

44

A headman

from Zambia

For Preventing or Managing Conflicts . . .Slide45

Go beyond first impressions/prejudgments by reframingReframing helps you avoid getting stuck with quick, inaccurate conclusions

Reframing helps you alter stereotypes

We all have stereotypes (Lewis, 1999), but we do not have to keep them forever

Reframe the picture as you get new information

45

For Preventing or

Managing

Conflicts

. . .Slide46

Listen well to othersUnderstand different conflict styles and use the most effective one for the situation; be flexibleAvoid losing face and causing other individuals or

cultural

groups to

lose

face (use the appropriate

facework

strategy)

Other suggestions: ______________________________________

______________________________________

46

For Preventing or Managing Conflicts . . .